Glucagon regulates ACC activity in adipocytes through the CAMKKß/AMPK pathway.

Glucagon is important for regulating lipid metabolism in part through its inhibition of fatty acid synthesis in adipocytes. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1) is the rate-limiting enzyme for fatty acid synthesis. Glucagon has been proposed to activate cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA), which phosphorylates ACC1 to attenuate the lipogenic activity of ACC1. Because AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) also inhibits fatty acid synthesis by phosphorylation of ACC1, we examined the involvement of AMPK and its upstream kinase in the glucagon-elicited signaling in adipocytes in vitro and in vivo. LC-MS-MS analysis suggested that ACC1 was phosphorylated only at Ser(79), an AMPK-specific site, in glucagon-treated adipocytes. Pharmacological inhibitors and siRNA knockdown of AMPK or PKA in adipocytes demonstrate that glucagon regulates ACC1 and ACC2 activity through AMPK but not PKA. By using Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase-ß knockout (CaMKKß(-/-)) mice and cultured adipocytes, we further show that glucagon activates the CaMKKß/AMPK/ACC cascade. Additionally, fasting increases the phosphorylation of AMPK and ACC in CaMKKß(+/+) but not CaMKKß(-/-) mice. These results indicate that CaMKKß/AMPK signaling is an important molecular component in regulating lipid metabolism in adipocytes responding to glucagon and could be a therapeutic target for the dysregulation of energy storage.

Control of cortical axon elongation by a GABA-driven Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase cascade.

Ca(2+) signaling plays important roles during both axonal and dendritic growth. Yet whether and how Ca(2+) rises may trigger and contribute to the development of long-range cortical connections remains mostly unknown. Here, we demonstrate that two separate limbs of the Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase (CaMKK)-CaMKI cascades, CaMKK-CaMKIalpha and CaMKK-CaMKIgamma, critically coordinate axonal and dendritic morphogenesis of cortical neurons, respectively. The axon-specific morphological phenotype required a diffuse cytoplasmic localization and a strikingly alpha-isoform-specific kinase activity of CaMKI. Unexpectedly, treatment with muscimol, a GABA(A) receptor agonist, selectively stimulated elongation of axons but not of dendrites, and the CaMKK-CaMKIalpha cascade critically mediated this axonogenic effect. Consistent with these findings, during early brain development, in vivo knockdown of CaMKIalpha significantly impaired the terminal axonal extension and thereby perturbed the refinement of the interhemispheric callosal projections into the contralateral cortices. Our findings thus indicate a novel role for the GABA-driven CaMKK-CaMKIalpha cascade as a mechanism critical for accurate cortical axon pathfinding, an essential process that may contribute to fine-tuning the formation of interhemispheric connectivity during the perinatal development of the CNS.

Targeted inactivation of the IL-4 receptor alpha chain I4R motif promotes allergic airway inflammation.

The insulin/interleukin-4 (IL-4) receptor (I4R) motif mediates the association of insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-2 with the interleukin-4 (IL-4)Ralpha chain and transduces mitogenic signals in response to IL-4. Its physiological functions were analyzed in mice with a germline point mutation that changed the motif's effector tyrosine residue into phenylalanine (Y500F). The Y500F mutation abrogated IRS-2 phosphorylation and impaired IL-4-induced CD4+ T lymphocyte proliferation but left unperturbed Stat6 activation, up-regulation of IL-4-responsive gene products, and Th cell differentiation under Th2 polarizing conditions. However, in vivo the Y500F mutation was associated with increased allergen-induced IgE production, airway responsiveness, tissue eosinophilia, and mucus production. These results define an important role for the I4R motif in regulating allergic inflammation.

Long-term memory deficits in Pavlovian fear conditioning in Ca2+/calmodulin kinase kinase alpha-deficient mice.

Signaling by the Ca(2+)/calmodulin kinase (CaMK) cascade has been implicated in neuronal gene transcription, synaptic plasticity, and long-term memory consolidation. The CaM kinase kinase alpha (CaMKKalpha) isoform is an upstream component of the CaMK cascade whose function in different behavioral and learning and memory paradigms was analyzed by targeted gene disruption in mice. CaMKKalpha mutants exhibited normal long-term spatial memory formation and cued fear conditioning but showed deficits in context fear during both conditioning and long-term follow-up testing. They also exhibited impaired activation of the downstream kinase CaMKIV/Gr and its substrate, the transcription factor cyclic AMP-responsive element binding protein (CREB) upon fear conditioning. Unlike CaMKIV/Gr-deficient mice, the CaMKKalpha mutants exhibited normal long-term potentiation and normal levels of anxiety-like behavior. These results demonstrate a selective role for CaMKKalpha in contextual fear memory and suggest that different combinations of upstream and downstream components of the CaMK cascade may serve distinct physiological functions.

Pathogenicity of a disease-associated human IL-4 receptor allele in experimental asthma.

Polymorphisms in the interleukin-4 receptor alpha chain (IL-4R alpha) have been linked to asthma incidence and severity, but a causal relationship has remained uncertain. In particular, a glutamine to arginine substitution at position 576 (Q576R) of IL-4R alpha has been associated with severe asthma, especially in African Americans. We show that mice carrying the Q576R polymorphism exhibited intense allergen-induced airway inflammation and remodeling. The Q576R polymorphism did not affect proximal signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 6 activation, but synergized with STAT6 in a gene target- and tissue-specific manner to mediate heightened expression of a subset of IL-4- and IL-13-responsive genes involved in allergic inflammation. Our findings indicate that the Q576R polymorphism directly promotes asthma in carrier populations by selectively augmenting IL-4R alpha-dependent signaling.

Critical function of the CD40 pathway in parvovirus B19 infection revealed by a hypomorphic CD40 ligand mutation.

Parvovirus B19-induced chronic anemia has been associated with failure to mount an effective neutralizing antibody response. We describe an adolescent male with a 13-year history of parvovirus B19-induced anemia as the primary manifestation of X-linked hyper IgM immunodeficiency (XHIM). This patient, whose serum IgG concentration was at the low end of the normal range and who mounted IgG antibody responses to T cell-dependent antigens, suffered from a nonsense mutation (R11 --> X) in the CD40 ligand (CD40L) gene. This resulted in low-level expression of a mutant CD40L predicted to lack the cytoplasmic domain. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy alone or in combination with interferon gamma, given in the context of impaired Th1 cytokine production, suppressed but did not eradicate the infection. These results highlight the critical function of the CD40/CD40L pathway in parvovirus B19 infection and suggest that subtle defects in this pathway may underlie cases of chronic parvovirus B19 infection atypical of XHIM.