Sex-related association of serum uric acid with inflammation, kidney function and blood pressure in type 1 diabetic patients.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: Recent studies suggest that uric acid (UA) is a mediator of diabetic nephropathy. We hypothesized that serum UA would associate with the prevalence of diabetic nephropathy in youth with type 1 diabetes (T1D), and that this relationship would differ by sex. METHODS: We examined 120 young boys and the same number of girls with T1D. C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), UA, cystatin C serum concentrations, albumin excretion rate and blood pressure were also analyzed. RESULTS: T1D boys had higher serum UA and creatinine concentration, as well as albumin excretion rate and estimated glomerular filtration rate than T1D girls. Moreover, newly diagnosed nephropathy was more common in male subjects in comparison to female patients. Only in T1D boys serum UA was positively correlated with concentrations of subclinical inflammatory markers (CRP, IL-6, TNF-α), the indicators of renal function (albumin excretion rate, serum cystatin C level), blood pressure and negatively correlated with anti-inflammatory IL-10. In addition, only in T1D girls serum UA concentration was negatively correlated with hemoglobin A1c. CONCLUSIONS: Serum UA is associated with nephropathy prevalence, albeit only in boys with T1D and may be an important risk factor for predicting diabetes-related cardiorenal complications in these patients.

Monogenic diabetes prevalence among Polish children-Summary of 11 years-long nationwide genetic screening program.

BACKGROUND: Estimated monogenic diabetes (MD) prevalence increases as screening programs proceeds. OBJECTIVE: To estimate prevalence of MD among Polish children. SUBJECTS: Patients and their family members suspected of suffering from MD (defined as causative mutation in one of the Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young or permanent neonatal diabetes mellitus genes) were recruited between January 2005 and December 2015. METHODS: Nationwide prevalence was estimated based on data from 6 administrative provinces (out of 16 in Poland) with high referral rates of patients (>10 per 100 000 children). RESULTS: During the analysis, probands from 322 of 788 screened families tested positive yielding a total of 409 children and 299 family members with MD. An average of 70 probands/year were referred. Screening success rate reached 40% over the study period. We estimated the prevalence of MD in 2015 to 7.52/100 000 children (1 in 13 000). The most frequent MODY in this group was GCK- MODY (6.88/100 000). The prevalence estimates increased nearly 2-fold since our report in 2011 (4.4/100 000). However, the figure reached a plateau because of screening saturation in 2014 what was also proven by lowering of the median age of diagnosis lowered in time (R = -0.73, P = .0172) along with shortening of the delay between clinical and genetic diagnosis (R = -0.65, P = .0417). CONCLUSIONS: The screening for childhood MD in Poland reached a plateau phase after 10 years showing a stable prevalence estimate. The true frequency of MD in the overall population may be higher given later onset of reportedly more frequent types of MD than GCK -MODY.

Atomic charges of sulfur in ionic liquids: experiments and calculations.

Experimental near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectra, X-ray photoelectron (XP) spectra and Auger electron spectra are reported for sulfur in ionic liquids (ILs) with a range of chemical structures. These values provide experimental measures of the atomic charge in each IL and enable the evaluation of the suitability of NEXAFS spectroscopy and XPS for probing the relative atomic charge of sulfur. In addition, we use Auger electron spectroscopy to show that when XPS binding energies differ by less than 0.5 eV, conclusions on atomic charge should be treated with caution. Our experimental data provides a benchmark for calculations of the atomic charge of sulfur obtained using different methods. Atomic charges were computed for lone ions and ion pairs, both in the gas phase (GP) and in a solvation model (SMD), with a wide range of ion pair conformers considered. Three methods were used to compute the atomic charges: charges from the electrostatic potential using a grid based method (ChelpG), natural bond orbital (NBO) population analysis and Bader's atoms in molecules (AIM) approach. By comparing the experimental and calculated measures of the atomic charge of sulfur, we provide an order for the sulfur atoms, ranging from the most negative to the most positive atomic charge. Furthermore, we show that both ChelpG and NBO are reasonable methods for calculating the atomic charge of sulfur in ILs, based on the agreement with both the XPS and NEXAFS spectroscopy results. However, the atomic charges of sulfur derived from ChelpG are found to display significant, non-physical conformational dependence. Only small differences in individual atomic charge of sulfur were observed between lone ion (GP) and ion pair IL(SMD) model systems, indicating that ion-ion interactions do not strongly influence individual atomic charges.

When do paediatric patients with familial hypercholesterolemia need statin therapy?

INTRODUCTION: Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is one of the most common autosomal dominant disorders. It is characterized by elevated LDL cholesterol levels occurring already by early childhood. Awareness of health risks in FH patients should incite health professionals to actively seek and treat children with lipid disorders to reduce their risk of myocardial infarction and stroke. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to evaluate the suitability of taking into account the following parameters: ApoB/ApoA index, IMT and e-tracking examination, when initiating statin therapy in FH patients. Materials and methods The study included 57 male and female patients aged 9.57±3.2 years (ranging from 1 year to 17 years), diagnosed with familial hypercholesterolemia confirmed by molecular testing. All the participants had their lipid profile, ApoA and ApoB levels determined. Carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) was measured by carotid ultrasound and arterial stiffness was assessed by e-tracking. The dietary treatment efficacy was monitored in 40 patients and the 12-month combination treatment efficacy in 27 patients. The study was conducted prospectively and retrospectively. Statistical analysis was performed with the EPIINFO Ver. 7.1.1.14 statistical software package. RESULTS: Patients with familial hypercholesterolemia had high mean levels of total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol (287±67 mg/dL and 213±73 mg/dL respectively). 34.37% of the study subjects had a markedly increased ApoB/ApoA index. On IMT or e-tracking examination all the subjects (100%) had vascular abnormalities. After 6 months of a low-cholesterol diet, the mean total and LDL cholesterol levels in the serum had been reduced by 7.2% and 6.2%, respectively. Statins in an average dose of 10.42±2.49 mg daily were prescribed to 36 patients. After one year of the statin therapy, the average serum total and LDL cholesterol levels were 203.5±34.8 mg/dL and 139.1±32.1 mg/dL, respectively, and were still above the target values. Moreover, side effects of the statin therapy were monitored. An increase in AST levels seen in the study group was not statistically significant. The mean creatine kinase level was within the range of normal. Moreover, in our study material we estimated the risk of cardiovascular events in relation to the ApoB/ApoA index. Higher cardiovascular risk was found in 34.37% participants. CONCLUSIONS: Increased risk of cardiovascular events based on ApoB/ApoA index and carotid e-tracking or IMT examination in paediatric patients with FH is an indication for statin therapy initiation.

IL-33 Effect on Quantitative Changes of CD4+CD25highFOXP3+ Regulatory T Cells in Children with Type 1 Diabetes.

IL-33 is an IL-1 cytokine family member, with ability to induce both Th1 and Th2 immune responses. It binds to ST2 receptor, whose deficiency is associated with enhanced inflammatory response. The most recent studies have shown the immunoregulatory effect of IL-33 on Tregs in animal models. As type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune, inflammatory disease, where Treg defects have been described, we aimed to analyze the in vitro influence of recombinant IL-33 on quantitative properties of regulatory CD4+CD25highFOXP3+ T cells. CD4+CD25highFOXP3+ as well as CD4+CD25highFOXP3+ST2+ Tregs were analyzed by flow cytometry. In a group of patients with type 1 diabetes in vitro IL-33 treatment induced regulatory CD4+CD25highFOXP3+ cell frequencies as well as upregulating the surface expression of ST2 molecule. In addition, the number of CD4+CD25highFOXP3+ cells carrying ST2 receptor increased significantly. Similar effect was observed in case of the FOXP3 expression. We did not observe any significant changes in IL-33 treated cells of healthy controls. The level of ST2 was higher in serum of patients with type 1 diabetes in comparison to their healthy counterparts. We propose that IL-33 becomes an additional immunostimulatory factor used to induce Treg expansion in future clinical trials of adoptive therapy in type 1 diabetes.

[Treatment with statins in children with familial hypercholesterolemia].

Children with familial hypercholesterolemia have very high total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol levels in blood which may result in endothelial dysfunction and increase in carotid intima-media thickness. When untreated in childhood, familial hypercholesterolemia is associated with a premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in adulthood. According to the results of clinical studies in children with familial hypercholesterolemia conducted in the last two decades, as well as statements of American Heart Association (AHA), American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and Polish Statement called Stanowisko Ekspertów Lipidowych, the recommendations of treatment were published. In children with familial hypercholesterolemia aged 8 years and more statins are one of the first-line medications, thanks to their hypolipemic and pleiotropic activities and well established position in treatment of adult patients with hypercholesterolemia and cardiovascular disease prevention. This paper provides data on pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties of statins, as well as overview of clinical studies in children with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia, regarding efficacy and safety of statins. The studies have revealed significant lowering of LDL cholesterol level (20-50%) and total cholesterol level (20-30%) by statins used in the lowest recommended dose (compared to placebo) in children aged 8 years and more, in a period from 8 weeks to 24 months. In addition to the fact that statin treatment is efficacious, the safety was also confirmed by the meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials in children. The results showed that statin therapy did not impair growth and sexual development in children. The adverse effects were generally mild and did not differ as compared to placebo. However, it should be emphasized that efficacy and safety assessment of statins is limited to 24 months only. Large long-term clinical studies are needed to establish the long-term safety issues of statins in children.

IVS1 -397T>C estrogen receptor α polymorphism is associated with low-grade systemic inflammatory response in type 1 diabetic girls.

PURPOSE: The study aimed to investigate the influence of estrogen receptor α (ER-α) genotypes on inflammatory response and development of microvascular complications in girls with type 1 diabetes. METHODS: 152 young regularly menstruating girls with diagnosed type 1 diabetes and 84 young, healthy menstruating girls were recruited. ER-α genotyping was carried out by PCR. Serum concentrations of 17ß-estradiol, as well as IL-6, TNF-α, VEGF, and IL-10, were measured. CD4(+)Foxp3(+) TH17 cells were isolated and analyzed by flow cytometry. RESULTS: Type 1 diabetic girls carrying TT genotype were characterized by the lowest serum estradiol level and IL-10 and highest IL-6, TNF-α, and VEGF. The association between the level of certain cytokine and the genetic variant of estrogen receptor α polymorphism was analyzed. Frequencies of CD4(+)Foxp3(+) TH17 cells were also enhanced in TT bearing girls with type 1 diabetes and correlated with the level of analyzed cytokines. In addition, the correlation between serum estradiol level and cytokine concentrations was observed. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that TT variant of estrogen receptor α polymorphism may be associated with enhanced inflammatory response, which in turn may lead to acceleration of diabetic retino- and nephropathy in girls with type 1 diabetes. This finding may help the physicians to predict the onset and progression of diabetic microvascular complications.

A step towards the a priori design of ionic liquids.

A range of methods for the computational prediction of experimentally derived α and ß Kamlet-Taft parameters, indicators of hydrogen bond (H-bond) acidity and basicity for ionic liquids (ILs) have been explored. Most usefully, a good correlation has been established between several simple and easily computed quantities which allow for a "quick bench-top" evaluation. More accurate, but also more sophisticated methods employing TD-DFT calculations involving the Kamlet-Taft dyes have been examined and evaluated. Importantly, these techniques open up the opportunity for pre-screening and a priori prediction of properties for ILs not yet synthesised. A key fundamental insight into IL H-bonds has been the determination of an estimate for the energy associated with replacing both neutral molecules in a H-bond with ionic molecules, thus forming the "doubly ionic" H-bond found in ILs.

Reconstructing the clostridial n-butanol metabolic pathway in Lactobacillus brevis.

A Lactobacillus brevis strain with the ability to synthesize butanol from glucose was constructed by metabolic engineering. The genes crt, bcd, etfB, etfA, and hbd, composing the bcs-operon, and the thl gene encode the enzymes of the lower part of the clostridial butanol pathway (crotonase, butyryl-CoA-dehydrogenase, two subunits of the electron transfer flavoprotein, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, and thiolase) of Clostridium acetobutylicum. They were cloned into the Gram-positive/Gram-negative shuttle plasmid vector pHYc. The two resulting plasmids pHYc-thl-bcs and pHYc-bcs (respectively, with and without the clostridial thl gene) were transferred to Escherichia coli and L. brevis. The recombinant L. brevis strains were able to synthesize up to 300 mg l(-1) or 4.1 mM of butanol on a glucose-containing medium. A L. brevis strain carrying the clostridial bcs-operon has the ability to synthesize butanol with participation of its own thiolase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, and alcohol dehydrogenase. The particular role of the enzymes involved in butanol production and the suitability of L. brevis as an n-butanol producer are discussed.

Hyperinsulinism hyperammonaemia (HI/HA) syndrome due to GLUD1 mutation: phenotypic variations ranging from late presentation to spontaneous resolution.

Background The hyperinsulinism/hyperammonaemia (HI/HA) syndrome is the second most common cause of hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia, caused by activating mutations in GLUD1. In this article, we report a series of three unrelated patients with HI/HA syndrome who demonstrated variable phenotypes, ranging from delayed presentation to spontaneous resolution of hypoglycaemia, thereby expanding the current knowledge and understanding of GLUD1 mutations. Case presentation This paper is a retrospective analysis of patients with HI/HA syndrome who demonstrated a variable disease course. Patient 1 presented with hypoglycaemic seizures at the age of 7 months and was diagnosed with HI/HA syndrome. Patient 2, a 5-year-old boy, on anti-convulsants since 8 months of age, was diagnosed with HI/HA at the age of 4 years. Patient 3, an 11-year-old girl with a history of transient neonatal hypoglycaemia, was diagnosed with HI/HA at the age of 12 months following evaluation for absence seizures. Patients 1 and 2 had raised ammonia levels, whilst patient 3 had normal ammonia level. The genetic analysis in all three patients confirmed GLUD1 mutation. Good glycaemic control was observed in all following diazoxide treatment. All patients have learning difficulties. Patient 1 demonstrated spontaneous resolution of hypoglycaemia at the age of 8 years, enabling discontinuation of diazoxide. Conclusions The cases highlight the diagnostic challenges in HI/HA syndrome due to a highly variable presentation. Knowledge of variable phenotypes would enable early diagnosis, thereby decreasing the risk of long-term neurological damage. Spontaneous resolution of hyperinsulinism could occur, and it is important to consider a trial off diazoxide therapy especially if the patients are on a small dose of diazoxide.

Pilot Study of Eyesight Characteristics and Thickness of the Retinal Nerve Fiber and Ganglion Cell-inner Plexiform Layers in Adolescent Patients with Type one Diabetes Mellitus on an Insulin Pump.

AIM: Estimation of the ocular status in adolescents with diabetes mellitus type 1 (DM1) treated with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII), assessment of the development of the diabetic retinopathy (DR) and nephropathy (DN) within 10 years. METHODS: 37 patients (74 eyes) aged 16-33 years, treated with CSII were enrolled to the study. Baseline, and a 10- year follow-up evaluation included: best corrected visual acuity (BCVA), tonometry, slit lamp exam and fluorescein angiography (FLA). Additionally, spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) was done in the 7th year of observation to assess the thickness of the retinal nerve fiber (RNFL) and the ganglion cellinner plexiform layers (GCL-IPL) complex thickness. Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1) and albuminuria were also analysed. RESULTS: During the 10-year observation period DR (non-proliferative - NPDR, proliferative - PDR, diabetic macular edema - DME) was diagnosed in 3 (8%) patients. In the DR group: BCVA was significantly lower, intraocular pressure (IOP) levels and albuminuria were higher. There were no differences in HbA1 in both groups. The thinning of RNFL was observed in both groups. Macular RNFL, GCL-IPL complex thickness assessment showed a significantly higher number of borderline results in the group with DR. CONCLUSIONS: Diabetic patients treated with CSII are at a lower risk of developing vascular complications even with poor metabolic control. Increased albuminuria may be a predictive sign for early ocular complications, and requires intense observation. Diagnosis of RNFL and GCL-IPL decreased values is crucial prior to diabetic retinopathy development. SD-OCT is a non-invasive, easy-to-perform, relatively inexpensive procedure, and can be a useful tool to monitor neuropathy progression.

IL-33 improves the suppressive potential of regulatory T cells in patients with type 1 diabetes.

AIMS: The presented study was aimed to analyze the influence of IL-33 on regulatory T cells (Tregs) suppressive potential in patients with type 1 diabetes. METHODS: We analyzed the ability of IL-33 treated Tregs to inhibit the production of IFN-γ by effector T lymphocytes in an in vitro co-culture. The study group consisted of 22 patients with type 1 diabetes and 12 age and sex-matched healthy individuals. RESULTS: Our findings revealed that in vitro IL-33 treatment of Tregs derived from patients with type 1 diabetes resulted in quantitative as well as qualitative changes in this cell population, confirming immunoregulatory features of IL-33. CONCLUSION: IL-33 could be considered as a potential therapeutic tool in adoptive therapies of type 1 diabetes.

Assessing the knowledge of the consequences of uncontrolled diabetesin pregnancy and its effects on fetal development, among femaleadolescents with type 1 diabetes.

INTRODUCTION: Two forms of diabetes can be distinguished during pregnancy: gestational diabetes and pregestational diabetes, which exists prior to pregnancy. In young women, the most common form of pregestational diabetes is type 1 diabetes (T1D). Regarding the decreasing age of sexual initiation and health risks for the mother and child related to hyperglycemia, it is essential that adolescents with T1D possess proper knowledge of pregnancy planning and diabetes management in case of pregnancy. Preconception counseling in adolescent patients with T1D remains a challenge for the whole therapeutic team. AIM OF THE STUDY: Assessing the awareness of consequences of uncontrolled diabetes on the course of pregnancy and fetal development among patients with T1D. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study was carried out in the group of 70 patients with T1D, aaged 15-18 years. The survey was consisted of 25 questions regarding health status, lifestyle, the knowledge of self-management of diabetes and the impact of diabetes on pregnancy and fetal development. Respondents were asked to indicate the sources of information from which they had gianed knowledge about the aforesaid issues. The data obtained were statistically analyzed. RESULTS: 20% (n=14) of respondents declared sexual activity. In the group of sexually active patients, in 50% (n=7) last HbA1c level, reported by subjects, was between 7.5-9%, and in 21.4% (n=3) >9%. The patients were aware of the consequences of uncontrolled diabetes on fetal development, however their knowledge was unsatisfactory. Surveyed adolescents indicated metabolic disorders (61.4 %, n=43), central nervous system malformations (55.7%, n=39) and heart defects (47.1%, n=33) as the most frequent complications. The respondents gathered knowledge mainly from a diabetologist (40%, n=28) and the Internet (40%, n=28). The majority of patients stated that preconception care should be provided by a diabetologist (88.6%, n=62) or a gynecologist (70%, n=49). CONCLUSION: In spite of continuous diabetes care, adolescents with T1D do not possess sufficient knowledge regarding the consequences of hyperglycemia during pregnancy. This study has emphasized the need for including reproductive health issues in diabetes education addressed to adolescent patients.

CCR5-Δ32 gene polymorphism is related to celiac disease and autoimmune thyroiditis coincidence in patients with type 1 diabetes.

AIM: The aim of the study was to assess the relationship between CCR5-Δ32 polymorphism and the coincidence of celiac and autoimmune thyroid diseases with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) in children. METHODS: 420 children with T1D aged 15.5±3.0years and 350 healthy controls were studied. Characterization of CCR5-Δ32 genotypes (rs333) was analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). RESULTS: The allele frequency was significantly different in diabetic children as compared to the healthy controls (p<0.0001). We found negative association between T1D and Δ32 allele (OR=0.383; 95% CI=0.268-0.549). Besides, we observed alterations in the frequencies of CCR5-Δ32 genotypes due to celiac and autoimmune thyroid diseases. The risk of celiac disease for patient carriers of the 32-bp deletion was more than threefold higher than for noncarriers (OR=3.490; 95% CI=1.357-8.859; p=0.009). Similar results were obtained in the case of autoimmune thyroiditis. The risk of autoimmune thyroiditis for patient carriers of the 32-bp deletion was also more than threefold higher than for noncarriers (OR=3.466; 95% CI=1.754-6.849; p=0.0004). CONCLUSIONS: The findings of our studies suggest that the CCR5-Δ32 polymorphism is associated with type 1 diabetes mellitus and the Δ32 allele increases the risk of celiac disease and autoimmune thyroid disorders in patients with T1D.

CCR5-Δ32 gene polymorphism is associated with retinopathy in patients with type 1 diabetes.

AIM: The aim of the study was to assess the relationship between the CCR5-Δ32 polymorphism and the risk of diabetic retinopathy (DR) in patients with DM1. METHODS: We examined 420 patients and 350 healthy controls. The analysis concerned CCR5-Δ32 polymorphism as well as levels of serum inflammatory markers (CRP, TNF-α), adhesion molecules (VCAM, ICAM-1, ICAM-3) and CCR5 ligand (MCP-1). RESULTS: We found a negative association between DM1 and Δ32 allele. Moreover, the frequency of Δ32 allele was higher in a group with DR in comparison to control subjects without this complication. We also found that Δ32 carriers had the highest levels of: HbA1c, inflammatory markers, adhesion molecules and CCR5 ligand. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of our studies suggest that the CCR5-Δ32 polymorphism is associated with DM1 such that the Δ32 allele protects against the development of DM1 and increases the risk of DR in patients who have already developed the disease.

Th9 and Th22 immune response in young patients with type 1 diabetes.

Th17, Th22 and Th9 are recently discovered effector populations that may contribute to the pathogenesis of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. The presented study aimed to investigate the link between Th22 and Th9 subsets in type 1 diabetes, as this disease involves different subsets of CD4+ T lymphocytes. The study groups consisted of 23 patients with type 1 diabetes and 11 healthy individuals. All subjects had CD4+IL-22 Th22 and CD4+IL-9 Th9 lymphocytes investigated by flow cytometry. In addition, the plasma concentrations of IL-22 as well as IL-9 were analyzed. Our study demonstrated that Th9 and Th22 cell counts as well as their plasma cytokines were upregulated in patients with type 1 and correlated with HbA1c and CRP values. Taking these all into account, one can conclude that Th22 and Th9 lymphocyte activities may contribute to chronic, low-level inflammation that is considered an integral part of type 1 diabetes.

[Insulin secretion in the early phase of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and new hopes for maintaining it through therapy]. / Insulinosekrecja we wczesnej fazie cukrzycy typu 1 i nowe nadzieje terapeutyczne na jej utrzymanie.

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is an autoimmune disease with a progressive loss of pancreatic beta cell functional mass and subsequent impairment of insulin secretion. At present, the most important factors that help sustain insulin secretion at the early stage of the disease and have the potential to reduce the risk or even prevent long-term diabetic complications include early diagnosis, early initiation of the insulin therapy, an appropriate education of patients and immunotherapeutic interventions. In this paper, the issue of insulin secretion at the early stage of T1DM and some of the most recent research on novel therapies supporting traditional treatments are discussed.

The Highly Selective and Near-Quantitative Conversion of Glucose to 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Using Ionic Liquids.

A number of ionic liquids have been shown to be excellent solvents for lignocellulosic biomass processing, and some of these are particularly effective in the production of the versatile chemical building block 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). In this study, the production of HMF from the simple sugar glucose in ionic liquid media is discussed. Several aspects of the selective catalytic formation of HMF from glucose have been elucidated using metal halide salts in two distinct ionic liquids, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hydrogen sulfate as well as mixtures of these, revealing key features for accelerating the desired reaction and suppressing byproduct formation. The choice of ionic liquid anion is revealed to be of particular importance, with low HMF yields in the case of hydrogen sulfate-based salts, which are reported to be effective for HMF production from fructose. The most successful system investigated in this study led to almost quantitative conversion of glucose to HMF (90% in only 30 minutes using 7 mol% catalyst loading at 120°C) in a system which is selective for the desired product, has low energy intensity and is environmentally benign.

Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass with Low-cost Ionic Liquids.

A number of ionic liquids (ILs) with economically attractive production costs have recently received growing interest as media for the delignification of a variety of lignocellulosic feedstocks. Here we demonstrate the use of these low-cost protic ILs in the deconstruction of lignocellulosic biomass (Ionosolv pretreatment), yielding cellulose and a purified lignin. In the most generic process, the protic ionic liquid is synthesized by accurate combination of aqueous acid and amine base. The water content is adjusted subsequently. For the delignification, the biomass is placed into a vessel with IL solution at elevated temperatures to dissolve the lignin and hemicellulose, leaving a cellulose-rich pulp ready for saccharification (hydrolysis to fermentable sugars). The lignin is later precipitated from the IL by the addition of water and recovered as a solid. The removal of the added water regenerates the ionic liquid, which can be reused multiple times. This protocol is useful to investigate the significant potential of protic ILs for use in commercial biomass pretreatment/lignin fractionation for producing biofuels or renewable chemicals and materials.