Tityus serrulatus scorpion venom as a potential drug source for Chagas' disease: Trypanocidal and immunomodulatory activity.

Current chemical therapies for Chagas Disease (CD) lack ability to clear Trypanosoma cruzi (Tc) parasites and cause severe side effects, making search for new strategies extremely necessary. We evaluated the action of Tityus serrulatus venom (TsV) components during Tc infection. TsV treatment increased nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokine production by Tc-infected macrophages (MØ), decreased intracellular parasite replication and trypomastigotes release, also triggering ERK1/2, JNK1/2 and p38 activation. Ts7 demonstrated the highest anti-Tc activity, inducing high levels of TNF and IL-6 in infected MØ. TsV/Ts7 presented synergistic effect on p38 activation when incubated with Tc antigen. KPP-treatment of MØ also decreased trypomastigotes releasing, partially due to p38 activation. TsV/Ts7-pre-incubation of Tc demonstrated a direct effect on parasite decreasing MØ-trypomastigotes releasing. In vivo KPP-treatment of Tc-infected mice resulted in decreased parasitemia. Summarizing, this study opens perspectives for new bioactive molecules as CD-therapeutic treatment, demonstrating the TsV/Ts7/KPP-trypanocidal and immunomodulatory activity during Tc infection.

Role of SOCS2 in the Regulation of Immune Response and Development of the Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) is the most widely used animal model for the study of MS. The Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling (SOCS) 2 protein plays a critical role in regulating the immune responses. The role of SOCS2 during EAE has not been explored. EAE was induced in WT and SOCS2-/- mice using myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG35-55) peptide. Brain and spinal cord were examined during the peak (day 14) and recovery phase (day 28) of the disease. SOCS2 was upregulated in the brain of WT mice at the peak and recovery phase of EAE. The development of the acute phase was slower in onset in SOCS2-/- mice and was associated with reduced number of Th1 (CD3+CD4+IFN-γ +) cells in the spinal cord and brain. However, while in WT mice, maximal clinical EAE score was followed by a progressive recovery; the SOCS2-/- mice were unable to recover from locomotor impairment that occurred during the acute phase. There was a prolonged inflammatory response (increased Th1 and decreased Th2 and T regulatory cells) in the late phase of EAE in the CNS of SOCS2-/- mice. Transplantation of bone marrow cells from SOCS2-/- into irradiated WT mice resulted in higher lethality at the early phase of EAE. Altogether, these results suggest that SOCS2 plays a dual role in the immune response during EAE. It is necessary for damage during the acute phase damage but plays a beneficial role in the recovery stage of the disease.

The Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Modulates Production of Cytokines and Reactive Oxygen Species and Development of Myocarditis during Trypanosoma cruzi Infection.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor involved in controlling several aspects of immune responses, including the activation and differentiation of specific T cell subsets and antigen-presenting cells, thought to be relevant in the context of experimental Trypanosoma cruzi infection. The relevance of AhR for the outcome of T. cruzi infection is not known and was investigated here. We infected wild-type (WT) mice and AhR knockout (AhR KO) mice with T. cruzi (Y strain) and determined levels of parasitemia, myocardial inflammation and fibrosis, expression of AhR/cytokines/suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) (spleen/heart), and production of nitric oxide (NO), reactive oxygen species (ROS), and peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) (spleen). AhR expression was increased in the heart of infected WT mice. Infected AhR KO mice displayed significantly reduced parasitemia, inflammation, and fibrosis of the myocardium. This was associated with an anticipated increased immune response characterized by increased levels of inflammatory cytokines and reduced expression of SOCS2 and SOCS3 in the heart. In vitro, AhR deficiency caused impairment in parasite replication and decreased levels of ROS production. In conclusion, AhR influences the development of murine Chagas disease by modulating ROS production and regulating the expression of key physiological regulators of inflammation, SOCS1 to -3, associated with the production of cytokines during experimental T. cruzi infection.

Suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 modulates the immune response profile and development of experimental cerebral malaria.

Plasmodium falciparum infection results in severe malaria in humans, affecting various organs, including the liver, spleen and brain, and resulting in high morbidity and mortality. The Plasmodium berghei ANKA (PbA) infection in mice closely recapitulates many aspects of human cerebral malaria (CM); thus, this model has been used to investigate the pathogenesis of CM. Suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 (SOCS2), an intracellular protein induced by cytokines and hormones, modulates the immune response, neural development, neurogenesis and neurotrophic pathways. However, the role of SOCS2 during CM remains unknown. SOCS2 knockout (SOCS2(-/-)) mice infected with PbA show an initial resistance to infection with reduced parasitemia and production of TNF, TGF-ß, IL-12 and IL-17 in the brain. Interestingly, in the late phase of infection, SOCS2(-/-) mice display increased parasitemia and reduced Treg cell infiltration, associated with enhanced levels of Th1 and Th17 cells and related cytokines IL-17, IL-6, and TGF-ß in the brain. A significant reduction in protective neurotrophic factors, such as glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), was also observed. Moreover, the molecular alterations in the brain of infected SOCS2(-/-) mice were associated with anxiety-related behaviors and cognition impairment. Mechanistically, these results revealed enhanced nitric oxide (NO) production in PbA-infected SOCS2(-/-) mice, and the inhibition of NO synthesis through l-NAME led to a marked decrease in survival, the disruption of parasitemia control and more pronounced anxiety-like behavior. Treatment with l-NAME also shifted the levels of Th1, Th7 and Treg cells in the brains of infected SOCS2(-/-) mice to the background levels observed in infected WT, with remarkable exception of increased CD8(+)IFN(+) T cells and inflammatory monocytes. These results indicate that SOCS2 plays a dual role during PbA infection, being detrimental in the control of the parasite replication but crucial in the regulation of the immune response and production of neurotrophic factors. Here, we provided strong evidence of a critical relationship between SOCS2 and NO in the orchestration of the immune response and development of CM during PbA infection.

Increased susceptibility to pentylenetetrazol following survival of cerebral malaria in mice.

Malaria is considered a neglected disease and public health problem, affecting >200 million people worldwide. In the present study we used the Plasmodium berghei ANKA (PbA) model of experimental cerebral malaria (CM) in C57BL/6 mice. After rescue from CM and parasite clearance, animals were submitted to a seizure susceptibility test (45 days after infection) using a low dose of pentylenetetrazol (PTZ, 30 mg/kg) and monitored with use of behavioral and electroencephalography (EEG) methods. Mice rescued from CM presented a reduced latency to myoclonic and tonic-clonic seizures and an increased duration of tonic-clonic seizures. In addition, quantitative analysis of EEG revealed a decrease in relative power at beta frequency band in PbA-infected animals after PTZ injection. Our results suggest that CM may lead to increased susceptibility to seizures in mice.

Effect of mushroom Agaricus blazei on immune response and development of experimental cerebral malaria.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral malaria (CM) is debilitating and sometimes fatal. Disease severity has been associated with poor treatment access, therapeutic complexity and drug resistance and, thus, alternative therapies are increasingly necessary. In this study, the effect of the administration of Agaricus blazei, a mushroom of Brazilian origin in a model of CM caused by Plasmodium berghei, strain ANKA, was investigated in mice. METHODS: C57BL/6 mice were pre-treated with aqueous extract or fractions of A. blazei, or chloroquine, infected with P. berghei ANKA and then followed by daily administration of A. blazei or chloroquine. Parasitaemia, body weight, survival and clinical signs of the disease were evaluated periodically. The concentration of pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines, histopathology and in vitro analyses were performed. RESULTS: Mice treated with A. blazei aqueous extract or fraction C, that shows antioxidant activity, displayed lower parasitaemia, increased survival, reduced weight loss and protection against the development of CM. The administration of A. blazei resulted in reduced levels of TNF, IL-1ß and IL-6 production when compared to untreated P. berghei-infected mice. Agaricus blazei (aqueous extract or fraction C) treated infected mice displayed reduction of brain lesions. Although chloroquine treatment reduced parasitaemia, there was increased production of proinflammatory cytokines and damage in the CNS not observed with A. blazei treatment. Moreover, the in vitro pretreatment of infected erythrocytes followed by in vivo infection resulted in lower parasitaemia, increased survival, and little evidence of clinical signs of disease. CONCLUSIONS: This study strongly suggests that the administration of A. blazei (aqueous extract or fraction C) was effective in improving the consequences of CM in mice and may provide novel therapeutic strategies.

Role of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in the immune response profile and development of pathology during Plasmodium berghei Anka infection.

Infection with Plasmodium falciparum may result in severe disease affecting various organs, including liver, spleen, and brain, resulting in high morbidity and mortality. Plasmodium berghei Anka infection of mice recapitulates many features of severe human malaria. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is an intracellular receptor activated by ligands important in the modulation of the inflammatory response. We found that AhR-knockout (KO) mice infected with P. berghei Anka displayed increased parasitemia, earlier mortality, enhanced leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in the brain microvasculature, and increased inflammation in brain (interleukin-17 [IL-17] and IL-6) and liver (gamma interferon [IFN-γ] and tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α]) compared to infected wild-type (WT) mice. Infected AhR-KO mice also displayed a reduction in cytokines required for host resistance, including TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IFN-γ, in the brain and spleen. Infection of AhR-KO mice resulted in an increase in T regulatory cells and transforming growth factor ß, IL-6, and IL-17 in the brain. AhR modulated the basal expression of SOCS3 in spleen and brain, and P. berghei Anka infection resulted in enhanced expression of SOCS3 in brain, which was absent in infected AhR-KO mice. These data suggest that AhR-mediated control of SOCS3 expression is probably involved in the phenotype seen in infected AhR-KO mice. This is, to our knowledge, the first demonstration of a role for AhR in the pathogenesis of malaria.

Role of SOCS2 in modulating heart damage and function in a murine model of acute Chagas disease.

Infection with Trypanosoma cruzi induces inflammation, which limits parasite proliferation but may result in chagasic heart disease. Suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 (SOCS2) is a regulator of immune responses and may therefore participate in the pathogenesis of T. cruzi infection. SOCS2 is expressed during T. cruzi infection, and its expression is partially reduced in infected 5-lipoxygenase-deficient [knockout (KO)] mice. In SOCS2 KO mice, there was a reduction in both parasitemia and the expression of interferon-γ (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-6, IL-10, SOCS1, and SOCS3 in the spleen. Expression of IFN-γ, TNF-α, SOCS1, and SOCS3 was also reduced in the hearts of infected SOCS2 KO mice. There was an increase in the generation and expansion of T regulatory (Treg) cells and a decrease in the number of memory cells in T. cruzi-infected SOCS2 KO mice. Levels of lipoxinA(4) (LXA(4)) increased in these mice. Echocardiography studies demonstrated an impairment of cardiac function in T. cruzi-infected SOCS2 KO mice. There were also changes in calcium handling and in action potential waveforms, and reduced outward potassium currents in isolated cardiac myocytes. Our data suggest that reductions of inflammation and parasitemia in infected SOCS2-deficient mice may be secondary to the increases in Treg cells and LXA(4) levels. This occurs at the cost of greater infection-associated heart dysfunction, highlighting the relevance of balanced inflammatory and immune responses in preventing severe T. cruzi-induced disease.

Further evidence for an anti-inflammatory role of artesunate in experimental cerebral malaria.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral malaria (CM) is a clinical syndrome resulting from Plasmodium falciparum infection. A wide range of clinical manifestations follow the disease including cognitive dysfunction, seizures and coma. CM pathogenesis remains incompletely understood and without treatment this condition is invariably fatal. Artesunate has been accepted as the most effective drug for treating severe malaria. Besides its antiparasitic activity, an anti-inflammatory property has also been reported. In the current study, the immunomodulatory role of artesunate was investigated using a Plasmodium berghei ANKA model of CM, trough evaluation of behavioural changes and cytokines expression in hippocampus and in frontal cortex. METHODS: C57Bl/6 mice were infected with P. berghei by intraperitoneal route, using a standardized inoculation of 106 parasitized erythrocytes. Memory function was evaluated using the step-down inhibitory avoidance test. The mRNA expression of IFN-γ, IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of control and infected mice on day 5 post-infection were estimated by quantitative real time PCR. Plasmodium berghei -infected mice also received intraperitoneally a single dose of artesunate (32 mg/kg) on day 4 post-infection, and 24 hours after treatment behavioural and immunological analysis were performed. The protein levels of cytokines IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, IFN-γ, TNF in the serum, frontal cortex and hippocampus of controls and P. berghei -infected mice treated or not treated with artesunate were determined using a cytometric bead array (CBA) kit. The survival and neurological symptoms of CM were also registered. RESULTS: CM mice presented a significant impairment of aversive memory compared to controls on day 5 post-infection. A higher mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was found in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of infected mice. A single dose of artesunate was also able to decrease the expression of inflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of P. berghei-infected mice. In parallel, a significant improvement in neurological symptoms and survival were observed in artesunate treated mice. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, the current study provided further evidence that CM affects key brain areas related to cognition process. In addition, different patterns of cytokine expression during the course of CM could be modulated by a single administration of the anti-malarial artesunate.

SOCS2 modulates adipose tissue inflammation and expansion in mice.

INTRODUCTION: Obesity is usually triggered by a nutrient overload that favors adipocyte hypertrophy and increases the number of pro-inflammatory cells and mediators into adipose tissue. These mediators may be regulated by suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS), such as SOCS2, which is involved in the regulation of the inflammatory response of many diseases, but its role in obesity is not yet known. We aimed to investigate the role of SOCS2 in metabolic and inflammatory dysfunction induced by a high-refined carbohydrate-containing diet (HC). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Male C57BL/6 wild type (WT) and SOCS2 deficient (SOCS2-/-) mice were fed chow or an HC diet for 8 weeks. RESULTS: In general, SOCS2 deficient mice, independent of the diet, showed higher adipose tissue mass compared with their WT counterparts that were associated with decreased lipogenesis rate in adipose tissue, lipolysis in adipocyte culture and energy expenditure. An anti-inflammatory profile was observed in adipose tissue of SOCS2-/- by reduced secretion of cytokines, such as TNF and IL-6, and increased M2-like macrophages and regulatory T cells compared with WT mice. Also, SOCS2 deficiency reduced the differentiation/expansion of pro-inflammatory cells in the spleen but increased Th2 and Treg cells compared with their WT counterparts. CONCLUSION: The SOCS2 protein is an important modulator of obesity that regulates the metabolic pathways related to adipocyte size. Additionally, SOCS2 is an inflammatory regulator that appears to be essential for controlling the release of cytokines and the differentiation/recruitment of cells into adipose tissue during the development of obesity.

T-lymphocytes response persists following Plasmodium berghei strain Anka infection resolution and may contribute to later experimental cerebral malaria outcomes.

Several studies have proposed cerebral malaria (CM) as a CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocyte-mediated disease. However, there are no data regarding the recruitment and/or persistence of these cells in the CNS following the phase of infection resolution. Glutamate-mediate excitotoxicity has also been implicated in CM. Blockade of glutamate NMDA receptors by its noncompetitive antagonist MK801 modulates cytokine and neurotrophic factors expression preventing cognitive and depressive-like behavior in experimental CM. Herein, we aim to investigate the role of T lymphocytes in later outcomes in CM, and whether the protective role of MK801 is associated with T lymphocytes response.

Understanding the relation between Zika virus infection during pregnancy and adverse fetal, infant and child outcomes: a protocol for a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis of longitudinal studies of pregnant women and their infants and children.

INTRODUCTION: Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during pregnancy is a known cause of microcephaly and other congenital and developmental anomalies. In the absence of a ZIKV vaccine or prophylactics, principal investigators (PIs) and international leaders in ZIKV research have formed the ZIKV Individual Participant Data (IPD) Consortium to identify, collect and synthesise IPD from longitudinal studies of pregnant women that measure ZIKV infection during pregnancy and fetal, infant or child outcomes. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: We will identify eligible studies through the ZIKV IPD Consortium membership and a systematic review and invite study PIs to participate in the IPD meta-analysis (IPD-MA). We will use the combined dataset to estimate the relative and absolute risk of congenital Zika syndrome (CZS), including microcephaly and late symptomatic congenital infections; identify and explore sources of heterogeneity in those estimates and develop and validate a risk prediction model to identify the pregnancies at the highest risk of CZS or adverse developmental outcomes. The variable accuracy of diagnostic assays and differences in exposure and outcome definitions means that included studies will have a higher level of systematic variability, a component of measurement error, than an IPD-MA of studies of an established pathogen. We will use expert testimony, existing internal and external diagnostic accuracy validation studies and laboratory external quality assessments to inform the distribution of measurement error in our models. We will apply both Bayesian and frequentist methods to directly account for these and other sources of uncertainty. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The IPD-MA was deemed exempt from ethical review. We will convene a group of patient advocates to evaluate the ethical implications and utility of the risk stratification tool. Findings from these analyses will be shared via national and international conferences and through publication in open access, peer-reviewed journals. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: PROSPERO International prospective register of systematic reviews (CRD42017068915).

Cerebral Malaria Causes Enduring Behavioral and Molecular Changes in Mice Brain Without Causing Gross Histopathological Damage.

Malaria, parasitic disease considered a major health public problem, is caused by Plasmodium protozoan genus and transmitted by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito genus. Cerebral malaria (CM) is the most severe presentation of malaria, caused by P. falciparum and responsible for high mortality and enduring development of cognitive deficits which may persist even after cure and cessation of therapy. In the present study we evaluated selected behavioral, neurochemical and neuropathologic parameters after rescue from experimental cerebral malaria caused by P. berghei ANKA in C57BL/6 mice. Behavioral tests showed impaired nest building activity as well as increased marble burying, indicating that natural behavior of mice remains altered even after cure of infection. Regarding the neurochemical data, we found decreased α2/α3 Na+,K+-ATPase activity and increased immunoreactivity of phosphorylated Na+,K+-ATPase at Ser943 in cerebral cortex after CM. In addition, [3H]-Flunitrazepam binding assays revealed a decrease of benzodiazepine/GABAA receptor binding sites in infected animals. Moreover, in hippocampus, dot blot analysis revealed increased levels of protein carbonyls, suggesting occurrence of oxidative damage to proteins. Interestingly, no changes in the neuropathological markers Fluoro-Jade C, Timm staining or IBA-1 were detected. Altogether, present data indicate that behavioral and neurochemical alterations persist even after parasitemia clearance and CM recovery, which agrees with available clinical findings. Some of the molecular mechanisms reported in the present study may underlie the behavioral changes and increased seizure susceptibility that persist after recovery from CM and may help in the future development of therapeutic strategies for CM sequelae.

A Neuroprotective Effect of the Glutamate Receptor Antagonist MK801 on Long-Term Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes Secondary to Experimental Cerebral Malaria.

Cerebral malaria (CM) is a life-threatening complication of Plasmodium falciparum infection, which can result in long-term cognitive and behavioral deficits despite successful anti-malarial therapy. Due to the substantial social and economic burden of CM, the development of adjuvant therapies is a scientific goal of highest priority. Apart from vascular and immune responses, changes in glutamate system have been reported in CM pathogenesis suggesting a potential therapeutic target. Based on that, we hypothesized that interventions in the glutamatergic system induced by blockage of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors could attenuate experimental CM long-term cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Before the development of evident CM signs, susceptible mice infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA (PbA) strain were initiated on treatment with dizocilpine maleate (MK801, 0.5 mg/kg), a noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist. On day 5 post-infection, mice were treated orally with a 10-day course chloroquine (CQ, 30 mg/kg). Control mice also received saline, CQ or MK801 + CQ therapy. After 10 days of cessation of CQ treatment, magnetic resonance images (MRI), behavioral and immunological assays were performed. Indeed, MK801 combined with CQ prevented long-term memory impairment and depressive-like behavior following successful PbA infection resolution. In addition, MK801 also modulated the immune system by promoting a balance of TH1/TH2 response and upregulating neurotrophic factors levels in the frontal cortex and hippocampus. Moreover, hippocampus abnormalities observed by MRI were partially prevented by MK801 treatment. Our results indicate that NMDA receptor antagonists can be neuroprotective in CM and could be a valuable adjuvant strategy for the management of the long-term impairment observed in CM.

Knockdown of C-C Chemokine Receptor 5 (CCR5) is Protective Against Cerebral Ischemia and Reperfusion Injury.

BACKGROUND: Stroke is the second leading cause of death and a major cause of disability of adults worldwide. Inflammatory processes are known to contribute to the pathophysiology of cerebral ischemia, especially following reperfusion. Chemokines and their receptors are involved in migration of leukocytes and have been implicated in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke. OBJECTIVE: In the present study, we investigated the effects of C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) deficiency on neurological outcome, brain damage and expression of pro-inflammatory chemokines: chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 (CXCL1), chemokine (CC motif) ligand 3 (CCL3) and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 5 (CCL5), and the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). METHODS: Adult male C57BL/6 (wild-type) (WT) and CCR5 deficient mice were subjected to transient cerebral ischemia induced by 25 min of bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO) followed by 24 hours of reperfusion. Mice were divided into four groups: WT sham group, which underwent sham operation; WT ischemic group, which was subjected to transient bilateral common carotid artery occlusion, CCR5-/- sham group, which underwent sham operation, and CCR5-/- ischemic group, which was subjected to transient BCCAO. RESULTS: In CCR5 deficiency, we observed a significant improvement in the neurological deficits associated with decreased brain infarcted area as evaluated by triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC). Moreover, CCR5 deficiency revealed decreased percentage of necrotic cavities areas and frequency of ischemic neurons by histometric analysis. In addition, CCR5-/- ischemic animals showed lower brain levels of the chemokine CXCL1 and higher levels of BDNF by ELISA, compared with WT BCCAo mice. CONCLUSION: Taken together, our results suggest a potential neuroprotection in the absence of CCR5 receptor during global brain ischemia and reperfusion injury.

Role of the suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 (SOCS2) during meningoencephalitis caused by Bovine herpesvirus 5 (BoHV-5).

The role of suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) in meningoencephalitis caused by Bovine herpesvirus 5 (BoHV-5) was evaluated by intracranial infection in C57BL/6 wild-type mice (WT) and SOCS2 deficient mice (SOCS2(-/-)). Both infected groups presented weight loss, ruffled fur and hunched posture. Additionally, infected SOCS2(-/-) mice showed swollen chamfer and progressive depression. Infected WT animals developed mild meningitis, characterized by infiltration of mononuclear cells. Moreover, viral DNA was detected in liver and lung from infected WT group. This group also showed elevated brain levels of IFN-γ, IL-10, CXCL1 and CCL5, when compared with non-infected WT animals. Brain inflammation was exacerbated in infected SOCS2(-/-) mice with widespread distribution of the virus and increased brain levels of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-10, IL-12, CXCL1 and CCL5, when compared with WT infected mice. Moreover, infected SOCS2 deficient mice exhibited reduced brain mRNA expression of IFNα and IFNß and increased expression of mRNA of SOCS1, compared with infected WT mice. Taken together, our study provides an insight into the role of SOCS2 in modulating the immune response to BoHV-5 infection.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase γ is required for the development of experimental cerebral malaria.

Experimental cerebral malaria (ECM) is characterized by a strong immune response, with leukocyte recruitment, blood-brain barrier breakdown and hemorrhage in the central nervous system. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase γ (PI3Kγ) is central in signaling diverse cellular functions. Using PI3Kγ-deficient mice (PI3Kγ-/-) and a specific PI3Kγ inhibitor, we investigated the relevance of PI3Kγ for the outcome and the neuroinflammatory process triggered by Plasmodium berghei ANKA (PbA) infection. Infected PI3Kγ-/- mice had greater survival despite similar parasitemia levels in comparison with infected wild type mice. Histopathological analysis demonstrated reduced hemorrhage, leukocyte accumulation and vascular obstruction in the brain of infected PI3Kγ-/- mice. PI3Kγ deficiency also presented lower microglial activation (Iba-1+ reactive microglia) and T cell cytotoxicity (Granzyme B expression) in the brain. Additionally, on day 6 post-infection, CD3+CD8+ T cells were significantly reduced in the brain of infected PI3Kγ-/- mice when compared to infected wild type mice. Furthermore, expression of CD44 in CD8+ T cell population in the brain tissue and levels of phospho-IkB-α in the whole brain were also markedly lower in infected PI3Kγ-/- mice when compared with infected wild type mice. Finally, AS605240, a specific PI3Kγ inhibitor, significantly delayed lethality in infected wild type mice. In brief, our results indicate a pivotal role for PI3Kγ in the pathogenesis of ECM.

Regulatory effects of IL-18 on cytokine profiles and development of myocarditis during Trypanosoma cruzi infection.

Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi (Tc), is an important cause of heart disease. Resistance to Tc infection is multifactorial and associated with Th1 response. IL-18 plays an important role in regulation of IFN-γ production/development of Th1 response. However, the role of IL-18 in the setting of Tc infection remains unclear. Therefore, we investigated the role of IL-18 in the modulation of immune response and myocarditis in Tc infection. C57BL/6 and IL-18 KO mice were infected with Tc (Y or Colombian strain) and parasitemia, immune response and pathology were evaluated. Y strain infection of IL-18 KO did not alter any parameters when compared with C57BL/6 mice. However, during the acute phase (20 and 40 days post infection-dpi), Colombian strain infected-IL-18 KO mice displayed higher serum levels of IL-12 and IFN-γ, respectively, and at the chronic phase (100 dpi) an increase in splenic IFN-γ-producing CD4(+) and CD8(+) T memory cells. There was an IL-10, FOXP3 and CD4(+)CD25(+) cells reduction during acute infection in spleen. Additionally, there was a significant reduction in leukocyte infiltration and parasite load in myocardium of chronically infected IL-18 KO mice. Collectively, these data indicate that IL-18 contributes to the pathogenesis of Tc-induced myocarditis when infected with Colombian but not Y strain. These observations also underscore that parasite and host strain differences are important in evaluation of experimental Tc infection pathogenesis.

Pathogenesis of Chagas disease: time to move on.

Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiologic agent of Chagas disease. The contributions of parasite and immune system for disease pathogenesis remain unresolved and controversial. The possibility that Chagas disease was an autoimmune progression triggered by T. cruzi infection led some to question the benefit of treating chronically T. cruzi-infected persons with drugs. Furthermore, it provided the rationale for not investing in research aimed at a vaccine which might carry a risk of inducing autoimmunity or exacerbating inflammation. This viewpoint was adopted by cash-strapped health systems in the developing economies where the disease is endemic and has been repeatedly challenged by researchers and clinicians in recent years and there is now a considerable body of evidence and broad consensus that parasite persistence is requisite for pathogenesis and that antiparasitic immunity can be protective against T. cruzi pathogenesis without eliciting autoimmune pathology. Thus, treatment of chronically infected patients is likely to yield positive outcomes and efforts to understand immunity and vaccine development should be recognized as a priority area of research for Chagas disease.

Improving cognitive outcome in cerebral malaria: insights from clinical and experimental research.

Cerebral Malaria (CM) is a clinical syndrome defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a potentially reversible diffuse encephalopathy characterized mainly by coma and the presence of asexual forms of Plasmodium falciparum parasites in peripheral blood smears in the absence of other causes of encephalopathy. A wide range of clinical manifestations follows the disease including cognitive, behavioral and motor dysfunctions, seizures and coma. The underlying mechanisms of CM pathogenesis remain incompletely understood although vascular, immunological and metabolic changes have been described. The classical treatment of CM is based on the administration of antimalarial drugs, especially chloroquine and artemisinin derivates as artesunate. Even with treatment, 15 to 20% of children with CM die and approximately 10 to 17% of those who survive remain with significant long-term cognitive impairment. In this context, neuroprotective and adjuvant therapies have been recently investigated in clinical and experimental studies of CM in an attempt to improve cognitive outcome. A poor understanding of pathophysiological mechanisms, properties of compounds used and patient selection have contributed to the lack of success of these interventions. This review discusses clinical aspects of cognitive sequelae, possible mechanisms involved in the brain injury, perspectives and limitations regarding the pharmacological strategies to improve cognitive outcome in CM.