Inhibition of the Vesicular Glutamate Transporter (VGLUT) with Congo Red Analogs: New Binding Insights.

The vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) facilitates the uptake of glutamate (Glu) into neuronal vesicles. VGLUT has not yet been fully characterized pharmacologically but a body of work established that certain azo-dyes bearing two Glu isosteres via a linker were potent inhibitors. However, the distance between the isostere groups that convey potent inhibition has not been delineated. This report describes the synthesis and pharmacologic assessment of Congo Red analogs that contain one or two glutamate isostere or mimic groups; the latter varied in the interatomic distance and spacer properties to probe strategic binding interactions within VGLUT. The more potent inhibitors had two glutamate isosteres symmetrically linked to a central aromatic group and showed IC50 values ~ 0.3-2.0 µM at VGLUT. These compounds contained phenyl, diphenyl ether (PhOPh) or 1,2-diphenylethane as the linker connecting 4-aminonaphthalene sulfonic acid groups. A homology model for VGLUT2 using D-galactonate transporter (DgoT) to dock and identify R88, H199 and F219 as key protein interactions with Trypan Blue, Congo Red and selected potent analogs prepared and tested in this report.

The development of benzo- and naphtho-fused quinoline-2,4-dicarboxylic acids as vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) inhibitors reveals a possible role for neuroactive steroids.

Substituted quinoline-2,4-dicarboxylates (QDCs) are conformationally-restricted mimics of glutamate that were previously reported to selectively block the glutamate vesicular transporters (VGLUTs). We find that expanding the QDC scaffold to benzoquinoline dicarboxylic acids (BQDC) and naphthoquinoline dicarboxylic acids (NQDCs) improves inhibitory activity with the NQDCs showing IC50∼70 µM. Modeling overlay studies showed that the polycyclic QDCs resembled steroid structures and led to the identification and testing of estrone sulfate, pregnenolone sulfate and pregnanolone sulfate that blocked the uptake of l-Glu by 50%, 70% and 85% of control, respectively. Pregnanolone sulfate was further characterized by kinetic pharmacological determinations that demonstrated competitive inhibition and a Ki of ≈20 µM.

Microwave accelerated synthesis of isoxazole hydrazide inhibitors of the system xc- transporter: Initial homology model.

Microwave accelerated reaction system (MARS) technology provided a good method to obtain selective and open isoxazole ligands that bind to and inhibit the Sxc- antiporter. The MARS provided numerous advantages, including: shorter time, better yield and higher purity of the product. Of the newly synthesized series of isoxazoles the salicyl hydrazide 6 exhibited the highest level of inhibitory activity in the transport assay. A homology model has been developed to summarize the SAR results to date, and provide a working hypothesis for future studies.

Increased excitatory amino acid transport into murine prion protein knockout astrocytes cultured in vitro.

Prion protein (PrP) is expressed on a wide variety of cells and plays an important role in the pathogenesis of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. However, its normal function remains unclear. Mice that do not express PrP exhibit deficits in spatial memory and abnormalities in excitatory neurotransmission suggestive that PrP may function in the glutamatergic synapse. Here, we show that transport of D-aspartate, a nonmetabolized L-glutamate analog, through excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) was faster in astrocytes from PrP knockout (PrPKO) mice than in astrocytes from C57BL/10SnJ wild-type (WT) mice. Experiments using EAAT subtype-specific inhibitors demonstrated that in both WT and PrPKO astrocytes, the majority of transport was mediated by EAAT1. Furthermore, PrPKO astrocytes were more effective than WT astrocytes at alleviating L-glutamate-mediated excitotoxic damage in both WT and PrPKO neuronal cultures. Thus, in this in vitro model, PrPKO astrocytes exerted a functional influence on neuronal survival and may therefore influence regulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission in vivo.

Use of the hydantoin isostere to produce inhibitors showing selectivity toward the vesicular glutamate transporter versus the obligate exchange transporter system x(c)(-).

Evidence was acquired prior to suggest that the vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) but not other glutamate transporters were inhibited by structures containing a weakly basic α-amino group. To test this hypothesis, a series of analogs using a hydantoin (pK(a)∼9.1) isostere were synthesized and analyzed as inhibitors of VGLUT and the obligate cystine-glutamate transporter (system x(c)(-)). Of the hydantoin analogs tested, a thiophene-5-carboxaldehyde analog 2l and a bis-hydantoin 4b were relatively strong inhibitors of VGLUT reducing uptake to less than 6% of control at 5mM but few inhibited system x(c)(-) greater than 50% of control. The benzene-2,4-disulfonic acid analog 2b and p-diaminobenzene analog 2e were also good hydantoin-based inhibitors of VGLUT reducing uptake by 11% and 23% of control, respectively, but neither analog was effective as a system x(c)(-) inhibitor. In sum, a hydantoin isostere adds the requisite chemical properties needed to produce selective inhibitors of VGLUT.

Functional expression, purification and high sequence coverage mass spectrometric characterization of human excitatory amino acid transporter EAAT2.

The glial excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) mediates a majority of glutamate re-uptake in human CNS and, consequently, is associated with a variety of signaling and pathological processes. While our understanding of the function, mechanism and structure of this integral membrane protein is increasing, little if any mass spectrometric (MS) data is available for any of the EAATs specifically, and for only a few mammalian plasma membrane transporters in general. A protocol to express and purify functional EAAT2 in sufficient quantities to carry out MS-based peptide mapping as needed to study ligand-transporter interactions is described. A 6xHIS epitope was incorporated into the N-terminus of human EAAT2. The recombinant protein was expressed in high levels in mammalian HEK 293T cells, where it exhibited the pharmacological properties of the native transporter. EAAT2 was purified from isolated cell membranes in a single step using nickel affinity chromatography. In-gel and in-solution trypsin digestions were conducted on the isolated protein and then analyzed by MALDI-TOF and LC-MS/MS mass spectrometry. Overall, 89% sequence coverage of the protein was achieved with these methods. In particular, an 88 amino acid tryptic peptide covering the presumed substrate binding domains HP1, TMD7, HP2, and TMD8 domains of EAAT2 was also identified after N-deglycosylation. Beyond the specific applicability to EAAT2, this study provides an efficient, simple and scalable approach to express, purify, digest and characterize integral membrane transporter proteins by mass spectrometry.

Conformationally-restricted amino acid analogues bearing a distal sulfonic acid show selective inhibition of system x(c)(-) over the vesicular glutamate transporter.

A panel of amino acid analogs and conformationally-restricted amino acids bearing a sulfonic acid were synthesized and tested for their ability to preferentially inhibit the obligate cysteine-glutamate transporter system x(c)(-) versus the vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT). Several promising candidate molecules were identified: R/S-4-[4'-carboxyphenyl]-phenylglycine, a biphenyl substituted analog of 4-carboxyphenylglycine and 2-thiopheneglycine-5-sulfonic acid both of which reduced glutamate uptake at system x(c)(-) by 70-75% while having modest to no effect on glutamate uptake at VGLUT.

Isoxazole analogues bind the system xc- transporter: structure-activity relationship and pharmacophore model.

Analogues of amino methylisoxazole propionic acid (AMPA), were prepared from a common intermediate 12, including lipophilic analogues using lateral metalation and electrophilic quenching, and were evaluated at System xc-. Both the 5-naphthylethyl-(16) and 5-naphthylmethoxymethyl-(17) analogues adopt an E-conformation in the solid state, yet while the former has robust binding at System xc-, the latter is virtually devoid of activity. The most potent analogues were amino acid naphthyl-ACPA 7g, and hydrazone carboxylic acid, 11e Y=Y'=3,5-(CF(3))(2), which both inhibited glutamate uptake by the System xc- transporter with comparable potency to the endogenous substrate cystine, whereas in contrast the closed isoxazolo[3,4-d] pyridazinones 13 have significantly lower activity. A preliminary pharmacophore model has been constructed to provide insight into the analogue structure-activity relationships.

Synthesis and preliminary pharmacological evaluation of novel derivatives of L-beta-threo-benzylaspartate as inhibitors of the neuronal glutamate transporter EAAT3.

A series of beta-benzylaspartate derivatives were prepared from N-trityl-L-aspartate dimethyl ester and evaluated as inhibitors of neuronal glutamate transporter EAAT3. The result of the structure-activity studies suggests that the position occupied by the aromatic ring of beta-benzylaspartate within the binding site of EAAT3 may be different from that occupied by comparable groups in previously identified inhibitors, such as L-threo-benzyloxy aspartate (TBOA). Further, halogen substitutions at the 3-position of the aromatic ring of beta-benzylaspartate can increase the potency with which the analogues inhibit EAAT3.

Ethyl 4-{1-[(2,4-dinitro-phen-yl)hydrazono]eth-yl}-5-(2-naphthyl-methoxy-meth-yl)isoxazole-3-carboxyl-ate.

The title compound, C(26)H(23)N(5)O(8), was prepared and its structure investigated to further develop a working hypothesis for the essential binding pharmacophore for ligands of the System Xc- transporter [Patel et al. (2004 ▶). Neuropharmacology, 46, 273-284]. The hydrazone group displays an E geometry and the isoxazole double bond and C=N group of the hydrazone are in an s-cis relationship. The secondary amino NH group forms an intra-molecular N-H⋯O hydrogen bond to a ring nitro group. There is a dihedral angle of 44.27 (5)° between the isoxazole plane and the hydrazone group plane.

Regional distribution of sodium-dependent excitatory amino acid transporters in rat spinal cord.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: The excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs), or sodium-dependent glutamate transporters, provide the primary mechanism for glutamate removal from the synaptic cleft. EAAT distribution has been determined in the rat brain, but it is only partially characterized in the spinal cord. METHODS: The regional anatomic distribution of EAATs in spinal cord was assessed by radioligand autoradiography throughout cervical, thoracic, and lumbar cord levels in female Sprague-Dawley rats. EAAT subtype regional distribution was evaluated by inclusion of pharmacologic transport inhibitors in the autoradiography assays and by immunohistochemistry using subtype-specific polyclonal antibodies to rat GLT1 (EAAT2), GLAST (EAAT1), and EAAC1 (EAAT3) rat transporter subtypes. RESULTS: [3H]-D-Aspartate binding was distributed throughout gray matter at the 3 spinal cord levels, with negligible binding in white matter. Inclusion of pharmacologic transport inhibitors indicates that the EAAT2/ GLT1 subtype represents 21% to 40% of binding. Both EAAT1/GLAST and EAAT3/EAAC1 contributed the remainder of binding. Immunoreactivity to subtype-specific antibodies varied, depending on cord level, and was present in both gray and white matter. All 3 subtypes displayed prominent immunoreactivity in the dorsal horn. EAAT3/EAAC1 and to a lesser extent EAAT1/GLAST immunoreactivity also occurred in a punctate pattern in the ventral horn. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate heterogeneity of EAAT distribution among spinal cord levels and regions. The presence of these transporters throughout rat spinal cord suggests the importance of their contributions to spinal cord function.

The excitatory amino acid transporters: pharmacological insights on substrate and inhibitor specificity of the EAAT subtypes.

L-glutamate serves as the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS, where it can contribute to either neuronal communication or neuropathological damage through the activation of a wide variety of excitatory amino acid (EAA) receptors. By regulating the levels of extracellular L-glutamate that have access to these receptors, glutamate uptake systems hold the potential to effect both normal synaptic signaling and the abnormal over-activation of the receptors that can trigger excitotoxic pathology. Among the various membrane transporters that are capable of translocating this dicarboxylic amino acid, the majority of glutamate transport in the CNS, particularly as related to excitatory transmission, is mediated by the high-affinity, sodium-dependent, excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs). At least 5 subtypes of EAATs have been identified, each of which exhibits a distinct distribution and pharmacology. Our growing appreciation for the functional significance of the EAATs is closely linked to our understanding of their pharmacology and the consequent development of inhibitors and substrates with which to delineate their activity. As was the case with EAA receptors, conformationally constrained glutamate mimics have been especially valuable in this effort. The success of these compounds is based upon the concept that restricting the spatial positions that can be occupied by required functional groups can serve to enhance both the potency and selectivity of the analogues. In the instance of the transporters, useful pharmacological probes have emerged through the introduction of additional functional groups (e.g., methyl, hydroxyl, benzyloxy) onto the acyclic backbone of glutamate and aspartate, as well as through the exploitation of novel ring systems (e.g., pyrrolidine-, cyclopropyl-, azole-, oxazole-, and oxazoline-based analogues) to conformationally lock the position of the amino and carboxyl groups. The focus of the present review is on the pharmacology of the EAATs and, in particular, the potential to identify those chemical properties that differentiate the processes of binding and translocation (i.e., substrates from non-substrate inhibitors), as well as strategies to develop glutamate analogues that act selectively among the various EAAT subtypes.

Inhibitor of the glutamate vesicular transporter (VGLUT).

The vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) is responsible for the uptake of the excitatory amino acid, L-glutamate, into synaptic vesicles. VGLUT activity is coupled to an electrochemical gradient driven by a vacuolar ATPase and stimulated by low Cl-. VGLUT has relatively low affinity (K(m) = 1-3 mM) for glutamate and is pharmacologically and structurally distinct from the Na+-dependent, excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) found on the plasma membrane. Because glutamatergic neurotransmission begins with vesicular release, compounds that block the uptake of glutamate into the vesicle may reduce excitotoxic events. Several classes of competitive VGLUT inhibitors have emerged including amino acids and amino acid analogs, fatty acids, azo dyes, quinolines and alkaloids. The potency with which these agents inhibit VGLUT varies from millimolar (amino acids) to nanomolar (azo dyes) concentrations. These inhibitors represent highly diverse structures and have collectively begun to reveal key pharmacophore elements that may elucidate the key interactions important to binding VGLUT. Using known inhibitor structures and preliminary molecular modeling, a VGLUT pharmacophore is presented that will aid in the design of new, highly potent and selective agents.

The substituted aspartate analogue L-beta-threo-benzyl-aspartate preferentially inhibits the neuronal excitatory amino acid transporter EAAT3.

The excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) play key roles in the regulation of CNS L-glutamate, especially related to synthesis, signal termination, synaptic spillover, and excitotoxic protection. Inhibitors available to delineate EAAT pharmacology and function are essentially limited to those that non-selectively block all EAATs or those that exhibit a substantial preference for EAAT2. Thus, it is difficult to selectively study the other subtypes, particularly EAAT1 and EAAT3. Structure activity studies on a series of beta-substituted aspartate analogues identify L-beta-benzyl-aspartate (L-beta-BA) as among the first blockers that potently and preferentially inhibits the neuronal EAAT3 subtype. Kinetic analysis of D-[(3)H]aspartate uptake into C17.2 cells expressing the hEAATs demonstrate that L-beta-threo-BA is the more potent diastereomer, acts competitively, and exhibits a 10-fold preference for EAAT3 compared to EAAT1 and EAAT2. Electrophysiological recordings of EAAT-mediated currents in Xenopus oocytes identify L-beta-BA as a non-substrate inhibitor. Analyzing L-beta-threo-BA within the context of a novel EAAT2 pharmacophore model suggests: (1) a highly conserved positioning of the electrostatic carboxyl and amino groups; (2) nearby regions that accommodate select structural modifications (cyclopropyl rings, methyl groups, oxygen atoms); and (3) a unique region L-beta-threo-BA occupied by the benzyl moieties of L-TBOA, L-beta-threo-BA and related analogues. It is plausible that the preference of L-beta-threo-BA and L-TBOA for EAAT3 and EAAT2, respectively, could reside in the latter two pharmacophore regions.

Differentiation of substrate and non-substrate inhibitors of transport system xc(-): an obligate exchanger of L-glutamate and L-cystine.

In addition to the well-characterized sodium-dependent excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) present in the mammalian CNS, a chloride-dependent, sodium-independent transporter has also been identified that is capable of mediating the uptake of L-glutamate. Named system x(c)(-), this transporter is an obligate exchanger that normally couples the export of intracellular L-glutamate with the import of extracellular L-cystine. Two cell lines that express high levels of system x(c)(-) are used to delineate the pharmacology of the transporter and demonstrate that it is distinct from both the EAATs and EAA ionotropic receptors. Potent competitive inhibitors of system x(c)(-) include: L-homocysteate, ibotenate, L-serine-O-sulphate, (RS)-4-bromohomoibotenate, quisqualate, and (S)-4-carboxyphenylglycine. A fluorescent-based assay that allows system x(c)(-)-mediated exchange of L-glutamate and L-cystine to be followed in real time is used to assess substrate activity. Interestingly, those compounds that proved to be the most potent competitive inhibitors (e.g. L-quisqualate and 4-S-CPG) also proved to be the least active as substrates, suggesting that distinct structural features may control binding and translocation. Lastly, the finding that a number of system x(c)(-) inhibitors are also commonly used as probes of excitotoxic pathology (e.g., L-quisqualate, ibotenate and L-homocysteate) raises some interesting questions regarding the mechanisms through which these analogues produce CNS damage.

Synthesis and in vitro pharmacology of substituted quinoline-2,4-dicarboxylic acids as inhibitors of vesicular glutamate transport.

The vesicular glutamate transport (VGLUT) system selectively mediates the uptake of L-glutamate into synaptic vesicles. Uptake is linked to an H+-ATPase that provides coupling among ATP hydrolysis, an electrochemical proton gradient, and glutamate transport. Substituted quinoline-2,4-dicarboxylic acids (QDCs), prepared by condensation of dimethyl ketoglutaconate (DKG) with substituted anilines and subsequent hydrolysis, were investigated as potential VGLUT inhibitors in synaptic vesicles. A brief panel of substituted QDCs was previously reported (Carrigan et al. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 1999, 9, 2607-2612)(1) and showed that certain substituents led to more potent competitive inhibitors of VGLUT. Using these compounds as leads, an expanded series of QDC analogues were prepared either by condensation of DKG with novel anilines or via aryl-coupling (Suzuki or Heck) to dimethyl 6-bromoquinolinedicarboxylate. From the panel of almost 50 substituted QDCs tested as inhibitors of the VGLUT system, the 6-PhCH=CH-QDC (K(i) = 167 microM), 6-PhCH2CH2-QDC (K(i) = 143 microM), 6-(4'-phenylstyryl)-QDC (K(i) = 64 microM), and 6-biphenyl-4-yl-QDC (K(i) = 41 microM) were found to be the most potent blockers. A preliminary assessment of the key elements needed for binding to the VGLUT protein based on the structure-activity relationships for the panel of substituted QDCs is discussed herein. The substituted QDCs represent the first synthetically derived VGLUT inhibitors and are promising templates for the development of selective transporter inhibitors.

Sulfasalazine for brain cancer fits.

Recent research has identified an important role for a cystine-glutamate antiporter (system Xc) in the biology of malignant brain tumors. This transporter is effectively inhibited by sulfasalazine, a drug widely used to treat a number of chronic inflammatory conditions such as Crohn's disease. Preclinical data show that sulfasalazine is an effective inhibitor of tumor growth and tumor-associated seizures. These studies suggest that the cystine-glutamate antiporter is a valuable drug target for which tumor-specific drugs can be generated. In the meantime, sulfasalazine may be considered as adjuvant treatment for malignant gliomas.

System xc⁻ cystine/glutamate antiporter: an update on molecular pharmacology and roles within the CNS.

System x(c)(-) is an amino acid antiporter that typically mediates the exchange of extracellular l-cystine and intracellular L-glutamate across the cellular plasma membrane. Studied in a variety of cell types, the import of L-cystine through this transporter is critical to glutathione production and oxidative protection. The exchange-mediated export of L-glutamate takes on added significance within the CNS, as it represents a non-vesicular route of release through which this excitatory neurotransmitter can participate in either neuronal signalling or excitotoxic pathology. When both the import of L-cystine and the export of L-glutamate are taken into consideration, system x(c)(-) has now been linked to a wide range of CNS functions, including oxidative protection, the operation of the blood-brain barrier, neurotransmitter release, synaptic organization, viral pathology, drug addiction, chemosensitivity and chemoresistance, and brain tumour growth. The ability to selectively manipulate system x(c)(-), delineate its function, probe its structure and evaluate it as a therapeutic target is closely linked to understanding its pharmacology and the subsequent development of selective inhibitors and substrates. Towards that goal, this review will examine the current status of our understanding of system x(c)(-) pharmacology and the structure-activity relationships that have guided the development of an initial pharmacophore model, including the presence of lipophilic domains adjacent to the substrate binding site. A special emphasis is placed on the roles of system x(c)(-) within the CNS, as it is these actions that are among the most exciting as potential long-range therapeutic targets.

The Lathyrus excitotoxin beta-N-oxalyl-L-alpha,beta-diaminopropionic acid is a substrate of the L-cystine/L-glutamate exchanger system xc-.

Beta-N-oxalyl-L-alpha-beta-diaminopropionic acid (beta-L-ODAP) is an unusual amino acid present in seeds of plants from the Lathyrus genus that is generally accepted as the causative agent underlying the motor neuron degeneration and spastic paraparesis in human neurolathyrism. Much of the neuropathology produced by beta-L-ODAP appears to be a direct consequence of its structural similarities to the excitatory neurotransmitter L-glutamate and its ability to induce excitotoxicity as an agonist of non-NMDA receptors. Its actions within the CNS are, however, not limited to non-NMDA receptors, raising the likely possibility that the anatomical and cellular specificity of the neuronal damage observed in neurolathyrism may result from the cumulative activity of beta-L-ODAP at multiple sites. Accumulating evidence suggests that system xc-, a transporter that mediates the exchange of L-cystine and L-glutamate, is one such site. In the present work, two distinct approaches were used to define the interactions of beta-L-ODAP with system xc-: Traditional radiolabel-uptake assays were employed to quantify inhibitory activity, while fluorometrically coupled assays that follow the exchange-induced efflux of L-glutamate were used to assess substrate activity. In addition to confirming that beta-L-ODAP is an effective competitive inhibitor of system xc-, we report that the compound exhibits a substrate activity comparable to that of the endogenous substrate L-cystine. The ability of system xc- to transport and accumulate beta-L-ODAP identifies additional variables that could influence its toxicity within the CNS, including the ability to limit its access to EAA receptors by clearing the excitotoxin from the extracellular synaptic environment, as well as serving as a point of entry through which beta-L-ODAP could have increased access to intracellular targets.