Neurophysiological patterns associated with blunted emotional face processing and withdrawal tendencies in young children exposed to intimate partner violence.

Studies linking child maltreatment to abnormal neurophysiological responses to emotional stimuli and mental health impairment have not specifically explored these patterns in young children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV). The present study examined two neurophysiological indicators, resting-state electroencephalography and an emotion event-related potential (ERP) in 21 IPV exposed and 30 nonexposed children ages 4-6 years recruited from the community and domestic violence shelters. Frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) was assessed while at rest. FAA is often associated with avoidant/withdrawn behavior and increased risk of IPV-related mental health conditions (e.g., depression). Additionally, the late positive potential (LPP) ERP component, reflecting motivated attention, was acquired in the context of an age-appropriate affective oddball paradigm with low probability animal pictures as targets and human facial expressions (angry, happy, neutral) as distracters. Results demonstrated that IPV-exposed children, compared with nonexposed children, exhibited lower left FAA during resting state and reduced LPPs to oddball targets and affective faces relative to neutral faces in the oddball task. Together, these results suggest neural patterns associated with a blunted response to emotional stimuli and withdrawal tendencies, respectively, in young children exposed to IPV. Implications for emotional socialization in this vulnerable population are discussed.

An Item Response Theory examination of the original and short forms of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) in pregnant women.

OBJECTIVES: Emotion dysregulation during pregnancy may impede women's capacity to navigate increased stressors during this period and may elevate risk for psychosocial impairment, especially for socioeconomically disadvantaged or racially marginalized women. Valid and efficient assessment of emotion dysregulation is needed. METHODS: We used Item Response Theory (IRT) to examine the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) in 248 low income, primarily Latina/x pregnant women, to compare the short forms relative to the full DERS. RESULTS: IRT indicated that the short forms exhibited modest reliability, but also indicated a substantial decrease in information (i.e., reliability) for the short forms compared with the full DERS. IRT indicated that the DERS-16 appeared more reliable (conserve more information) relative to the other short forms, the DERS-SF and DERS-18. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that clinicians and researchers use the full DERS when time permits and the DERS-16 when needing a briefer version.

Multi-method assessment of irritability and differential linkages to neurophysiological indicators of attention allocation to emotional faces in young children.

Facilitated attention toward angry stimuli (attention bias) may contribute to anger proneness and temper outbursts exhibited by children with high irritability. However, most studies linking attention bias and irritability rely on behavioral measures with limited precision and no studies have explored these associations in young children. The present study explores irritability-related attention biases toward anger in young children (N = 128; ages 4-7 years) engaged in a dot-probe task with emotional faces, as assessed with event-related brain potential (ERP) indices of early selective attention and multi-method assessment of irritability. Irritability assessed via semi-structured clinical interview predicted larger anterior N1 amplitudes to all faces. In contrast, irritability assessed via a laboratory observation paradigm predicted reduced P1 amplitudes to angry relative to neutral faces. These findings suggest that altered early attentional processing occurs in young children with high irritability; however, the nature of these patterns may vary with methodological features of the irritability assessments. Future investigations using different assessment tools may provide greater clarity regarding the underlying neurocognitive correlates of irritability. Such studies may also contribute to the ongoing debates about how to best define and measure irritability across the developmental spectrum in a manner that is most informative for linkage to neural processes.

Differentiating typical from atypical perpetration of sibling-directed aggression during the preschool years.

BACKGROUND: Sibling aggression is common and often viewed as benign. Although sibling aggression can be harmful for the victims, it may also be a marker of clinical risk for the aggressor. We differentiated typical from atypical levels of perpetration of sibling-directed aggression among preschoolers, a developmental period in which aggression is a normative misbehavior, by (a) identifying how frequently aggressive behaviors targeted at a sibling must occur to be psychometrically atypical; (b) mapping the dimensional spectrum of sibling-directed aggression from typical, more commonly occurring behaviors to rarer, more atypical, actions; and (c) comparing the psychometric atypicality and typical-to-atypical spectrum of sibling-directed aggression and peer-directed aggression. METHODS: Parents (N = 1,524) of 3- (39.2%), 4-(36.7%), and 5-(24.1%) year-olds (51.9% girls, 41.1% African-American, 31.9% Hispanic; 44.0% below the federal poverty line) completed the MAP-DB, which assesses how often children engage in aggressive behaviors. We used item-response theory (IRT) to address our objectives. RESULTS: Most aggressive behaviors toward siblings were psychometrically atypical when they occurred 'most days' or more; in contrast, most behaviors targeted at peers were atypical when they occurred 'some days' or more. With siblings, relational aggression was more atypical than verbal aggression, whereas with peers, both relational and physical aggression were more atypical than verbal aggression. In both relationships, the most typical behavior was a verbally aggressive action. Results were broadly replicated in a second, independent sample. CONCLUSIONS: These findings are a first step toward specifying features of sibling aggression that are markers of clinical risk and belie the notion that sibling aggression is inherently normative.

Temporally sensitive neural measures of inhibition in preschool children across a spectrum of irritability.

Irritability is a prominent feature of chronic mental disorders and a developmental marker of their early emergence. The most salient feature of irritability in early childhood is temper tantrums. While temper tantrums are normative in young children, they can be clinically concerning when they are dysregulated, very frequent, and/or occur in unexpected contexts. The present study uses behavioral and event-related brain potential (ERP) measures to characterize the relationship between irritability and neural markers of response inhibition in very young children. Forty-six children (ages 4-7 years) completed a go/no-go task under nonfrustrating and frustrating conditions. ERPs elicited by go and no-go stimuli were examined as a function of frustration condition and irritability, operationalized via the well-validated Temper Loss scale of the Multidimensional Assessment Profile of Disruptive Behavior (MAP-DB). Higher Temper Loss scores were associated with larger N2no-go amplitudes and reduced no-go accuracy during frustration. This suggests that higher levels of irritability corresponded with increased conflict monitoring and poorer task performance during frustration. These findings add to a developing literature identifying the neurocognitive markers of varying levels of irritability in young children.

The Family Life Impairment Scale: Factor Structure and Clinical Utility with Young Children.

Although it is well-established that young children experience significant psychopathology, diagnostic decisions continue to be challenging, in part due to the way impairment is understood, defined, and measured. Most existing clinical tools assess impairment in an individualized manner, whereas for many young children, impairment is more accurately conceptualized as a family-oriented, multidimensional construct, impacting various parental and family activities. Two studies were completed using the Family Life Impairment Scale (FLIS), a multidimensional parent-report measure of family and associated impairment designed for young children. In Study 1, factor analysis was used in a large (n = 945) representative sample (23-48 months of age). FLIS associations with measures of parent and child well-being were explored to investigate convergent validity. Study 2 was completed in a sample (n = 174) of young children (18-33 months of age) diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders to explore factorial consistency in a clinical sample. Study 1 yielded evidence of a four-factor solution, including parent impairment (affecting parental well-being), family impairment (affecting family activities and routines), childcare impairment (affecting challenges with childcare), and positive growth (parental learning and growth associated with the child's problem). Evidence of convergent validity was also found, as factors were differentially associated with established measures of child symptoms and parent stress. Factor structure was supported in the clinical sample. Results support both the factorial structure and clinical utility of the FLIS for use across clinical and nonclinical populations of young children.

The Family Socialization Interview-Revised (FSI-R): a Comprehensive Assessment of Parental Disciplinary Behaviors.

Elucidating the complex mechanisms by which harsh parenting increases risk of child psychopathology is key to targeted prevention. This requires nuanced methods that capture the varied perceptions and experiences of diverse families. The Family Socialization Interview-Revised (FSI-R), adapted from an interview developed by Dodge et al. (Child Development, 65, 649-665, 1994), is a comprehensive, semi-structured interview for characterizing methods of parental discipline used with young children. The FSI-R coding system systematically rates parenting style, usual discipline techniques, and most intense physical and psychological discipline based on rater judgment across two eras: (1) birth to the previous year, and (2) the previous year to present. The current study examined the psychometric properties of the FSI-R in a diverse, high-risk community sample of 386 mothers and their children, ages 3 to 6 years. Interrater reliability was good to excellent for codes capturing physically and psychologically harsh parenting, and restrictive/punitive parenting styles. Findings supported the FSI-R's convergent and incremental validity. Importantly, the FSI-R demonstrated incremental utility, explaining unique variance in children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms beyond that explained by traditional surveys and observed parenting. The FSI-R appeared particularly promising for capturing risk associated with young children's depressive symptoms, as these were generally not significantly associated with other measures of harsh parenting. Overall, findings support the added value of the FSI-R within a multi-method assessment of disciplinary practices across early child development. Future implications for prevention are discussed.

Attention bias in the developmental unfolding of post-traumatic stress symptoms in young children at risk.

BACKGROUND: Threat-related attention bias relates to anxiety and posttraumatic stress symptoms in adults and adolescents, but few longitudinal studies examine such associations in young children. This study examines prospective relations among attention bias, trauma exposure, and anxiety and trauma symptoms in a sample previously reported to manifest cross-sectional associations between attention bias and observed anxiety at preschool age. METHODS: Young children [mean (MN) = 5.0, ±0.7 years, n = 208] from a community-based sample completed the dot-probe task to assess their attention biases in response to angry faces. At baseline (T1) and at follow-up approximately 9 months later (T2), anxiety and trauma exposure (i.e. violent and noninterpersonal events) and symptoms were assessed by maternal report. RESULTS: Neither attention bias nor baseline or recent trauma exposure predicted later anxiety. In contrast, attention bias toward threat and recent trauma exposure significantly predicted later trauma symptoms. There was evidence of symptom specificity such that attention bias toward threat significantly predicted hyperarousal and dissociation, but not avoidance or re-experiencing symptoms. Finally, moderation analyses indicated that the relationship between attention bias and trauma symptoms may differ according to children's experiences of probable abuse. CONCLUSIONS: Attention profiles and trauma exposure may increase the risk that young children will develop trauma symptoms. Individual differences in these attentional patterns and children's exposure history may impact outcomes among high-risk children with potential implications for intervention.

Examining Patterns of Exposure to Family Violence in Preschool Children: A Latent Class Approach.

Young children can experience violence directly or indirectly in the home, with some children exposed to multiple forms of violence. These polyvictims often experience violence that is severe, chronic, and multifaceted. The current study used latent class analysis to identify and examine the pattern of profiles of exposure to family violence (i.e., violence directed towards the child and between caregivers) among a sample of 474 children ages 3-6 year who were drawn from the Multidimensional Assessment of Preschoolers Study (Wakschlag et al., 2014). The data yielded 3 classes: a polyvictimized class (n = 72; 15.2%) with high probability of exposure to all forms of violence, a harsh parenting class (n = 235; 49.5%), distinguished mainly by child-directed physical discipline in the absence of more severe forms of violence, and a low-exposure class (n = 167; 35.2%). Classes were differentiated by contextual factors, maternal characteristics, and mother-reported and observational indicators of parenting and child functioning with most effect sizes between medium and large. These findings add to emerging evidence linking polyvictimization to impaired caregiving and adverse psychological outcomes for children and offer important insight for prevention and intervention for this vulnerable population.

Thresholds and accuracy in screening tools for early detection of psychopathology.

BACKGROUND: The accuracy of any screening instrument designed to detect psychopathology among children is ideally assessed through rigorous comparison to 'gold standard' tests and interviews. Such comparisons typically yield estimates of what we refer to as 'standard indices of diagnostic accuracy', including sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value. However, whereas these statistics were originally designed to detect binary signals (e.g., diagnosis present or absent), screening questionnaires commonly used in psychology, psychiatry, and pediatrics typically result in ordinal scores. Thus, a threshold or 'cut score' must be applied to these ordinal scores before accuracy can be evaluated using such standard indices. To better understand the tradeoffs inherent in choosing a particular threshold, we discuss the concept of 'threshold probability'. In contrast to PPV, which reflects the probability that a child whose score falls at or above the screening threshold has the condition of interest, threshold probability refers specifically to the likelihood that a child whose score is equal to a particular screening threshold has the condition of interest. METHOD: The diagnostic accuracy and threshold probability of two well-validated behavioral assessment instruments, the Child Behavior Checklist Total Problem Scale and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire total scale were examined in relation to a structured psychiatric interview in three de-identified datasets. RESULTS: Although both screening measures were effective in identifying groups of children at elevated risk for psychopathology in all samples (odds ratios ranged from 5.2 to 9.7), children who scored at or near the clinical thresholds that optimized sensitivity and specificity were unlikely to meet criteria for psychopathology on gold standard interviews. CONCLUSIONS: Our results are consistent with the view that screening instruments should be interpreted probabilistically, with attention to where along the continuum of positive scores an individual falls.

Development of a novel observational measure for anxiety in young children: The Anxiety Dimensional Observation Scale.

BACKGROUND: Identifying anxiety disorders in preschool-age children represents an important clinical challenge. Observation is essential to clinical assessment and can help differentiate normative variation from clinically significant anxiety. Yet, most anxiety assessment methods for young children rely on parent-reports. The goal of this article is to present and preliminarily test the reliability and validity of a novel observational paradigm for assessing a range of fearful and anxious behaviors in young children, the Anxiety Dimensional Observation Schedule (Anx-DOS). METHODS: A diverse sample of 403 children, aged 3 to 6 years, and their mothers was studied. Reliability and validity in relation to parent reports (Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment) and known risk factors, including indicators of behavioral inhibition (latency to touch novel objects) and attention bias to threat (in the dot-probe task) were investigated. RESULTS: The Anx-DOS demonstrated good inter-rater reliability and internal consistency. Evidence for convergent validity was demonstrated relative to mother-reported separation anxiety, social anxiety, phobic avoidance, trauma symptoms, and past service use. Finally, fearfulness was associated with observed latency and attention bias toward threat. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support the Anx-DOS as a method for capturing early manifestations of fearfulness and anxiety in young children. Multimethod assessments incorporating standardized methods for assessing discrete, observable manifestations of anxiety may be beneficial for early identification and clinical intervention efforts.

Contextual variation in young children's observed disruptive behavior on the DB-DOS: implications for early identification.

BACKGROUND: Contextual variation in child disruptive behavior is well documented but remains poorly understood. We first examine how variation in observed disruptive behavior across interactional contexts is associated with maternal reports of contextual variation in oppositional-defiant behavior and functional impairment. Second, we test whether child inhibitory control explains the magnitude of contextual variation in observed disruptive behavior. METHODS: Participants are 497 young children (mean age = 4 years, 11 months) from a subsample of the MAPS, a sociodemographically diverse pediatric sample, enriched for risk of disruptive behavior. Observed anger modulation and behavioral regulation problems were coded on the Disruptive Behavior Diagnostic Observation Schedule (DB-DOS) during interactions with parent and examiner. Oppositional-defiant behavior, and impairment in relationships, with parents and nonparental adults, were measured with the Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (PAPA) interview with the mother. Functional impairment in the home and out-and-about was assessed with the Family Life Impairment Scale (FLIS), and expulsion from child care/school was measured with the baseline survey and FLIS. RESULTS: Observed disruptive behavior on the DB-DOS Parent Context was associated with oppositional-defiant behavior with parents, and with impairment at home and out-and-about. Observed disruptive behavior with the Examiner was associated with oppositional-defiant behavior with both parents and nonparental adults, impairment in relationships with nonparental adults, and child care/school expulsion. Differences in observed disruptive behavior in the Parent versus Examiner Contexts was related to the differences in maternal reports of oppositional-defiant behavior with parents versus nonparental adults. Children with larger decreases in disruptive behavior from Parent to Examiner Context had better inhibitory control and fewer attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The DB-DOS showed clinical utility in a community sample for identifying contextual variation that maps onto reported oppositional-defiant behavior and functioning across contexts. Elucidating the implications of contextual variation for early identification and targeted prevention is an important area for future research.

Attention bias and anxiety in young children exposed to family violence.

BACKGROUND: Attention bias toward threat is associated with anxiety in older youth and adults and has been linked with violence exposure. Attention bias may moderate the relationship between violence exposure and anxiety in young children. Capitalizing on measurement advances, this study examines these relationships at a younger age than previously possible. METHODS: Young children (mean age 4.7, ±0.8) from a cross-sectional sample oversampled for violence exposure (N = 218) completed the dot-probe task to assess their attention biases. Observed fear/anxiety was characterized with a novel observational paradigm, the Anxiety Dimensional Observation Scale. Mother-reported symptoms were assessed with the Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment and Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children. Violence exposure was characterized with dimensional scores reflecting probability of membership in two classes derived via latent class analysis from the Conflict Tactics Scales: Abuse and Harsh Parenting. RESULTS: Family violence predicted greater child anxiety and trauma symptoms. Attention bias moderated the relationship between violence and anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: Attention bias toward threat may strengthen the effects of family violence on the development of anxiety, with potentially cascading effects across childhood. Such associations maybe most readily detected when using observational measures of childhood anxiety.

Behavior and emotion modulation deficits in preschoolers at risk for bipolar disorder.

BACKGROUND: Bipolar disorder (BD) is highly familial, but studies have yet to examine preschoolers at risk for BD using standardized, developmentally appropriate clinical assessment tools. We used such methods to test whether preschoolers at familial risk for BD have more observed difficulty modulating emotions and behaviors than do low-risk preschoolers. Identification of emotional and behavioral difficulties in at-risk preschoolers is crucial for developing new approaches for early intervention and prevention of BD. METHODS: Using the standardized disruptive behavior diagnostic observation schedule (DB-DOS) protocol for preschoolers, we compared 23 preschoolers (M(age): 4.53 ± 0.73 years; 18 males) with a first-degree relative with BD to 21 preschoolers (M(age): 4.65 ± 0.84 years; 11 males) without a family history of BD. We characterized psychopathology in this sample using the Preschool Aged Psychiatric Assessment and behavioral and emotional problems using the Child Behavior Checklist. RESULTS: High-risk preschoolers demonstrated significantly more intense, pervasive, and clinically concerning problems in anger modulation and behavior dysregulation on the DB-DOS than the low-risk group. High-risk relative to low-risk preschoolers, were also more likely to have maternal-reported anxiety and oppositional defiant disorders and internalizing and externalizing problems. CONCLUSIONS: Clinically concerning problems in anger modulation and behavior regulation, measured during standardized laboratory observation, differentiate preschoolers at high familial risk for BD from those at low risk. Investigation in a large longitudinal sample is critical for replication and for determining whether these observed behavioral differences can be reliably used as prodromal indicators of mood disorders.

Predicting externalizing and internalizing behavior in kindergarten: examining the buffering role of early social support.

This study tested an ecological model predicting children's behavior problems in kindergarten from risk and protective factors (parent psychological distress, parenting behavior, and social support) during early childhood. Study participants were 1,161 sociodemographically diverse mother-child pairs that participated in a longitudinal birth cohort study. The predictor variables were collected at two separate time points and based on parent reports; children were an average of 2 years old at Time 1 and 3 years old at Time 2. The outcome measures were collected when children reached kindergarten and were 6 years old on average. Our results show that early maternal psychological distress, mediated by suboptimal parenting behavior, predicts children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors in kindergarten. Moreover, early social support buffers the relations between psychological distress and later suboptimal parenting behavior and between suboptimal parenting behavior and later depressive/withdrawn behavior. Our findings have several implications for early intervention and prevention efforts. Of note, informal social support appears to play an important protective role in the development of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems, weakening the link between psychological distress and less optimal parenting behavior and between suboptimal parenting behavior and children's withdrawal/depression symptoms. Increasing social support may be a productive goal for family and community-level intervention.

Caregiver insightfulness and young children's violence exposure: testing a relational model of risk and resilience.

This study employed a relational post-traumatic stress frame to explore the co-contribution of young children's exposure to violence and caregiver insightfulness on child behavioral outcomes in a high-risk, non-referred sample of caregivers and preschoolers (n = 64; mean age 3.83 years, SD = .77). Caregiver insightfulness did not have a main effect on child outcomes but did moderate the relation between violence exposure and child behavior across all observed outcomes. Violence-exposed children with non-insightful caregivers demonstrated higher caregiver-rated internalizing and externalizing behaviors and observer-rated negative affect than all other groups. Among children not exposed to violence, insightfulness was not related to children's behavior problems or negative affect, suggesting violence-specific processes. Though cross-sectional, results suggest that the effects of violence and caregiver insightfulness on child outcomes are contingent on one another and that caregiver insightfulness may play a protective role in contexts of violence.

Punishment insensitivity and impaired reinforcement learning in preschoolers.

BACKGROUND: Youth and adults with psychopathic traits display disrupted reinforcement learning. Advances in measurement now enable examination of this association in preschoolers. The current study examines relations between reinforcement learning in preschoolers and parent ratings of reduced responsiveness to socialization, conceptualized as a developmental vulnerability to psychopathic traits. METHODS: One hundred and fifty-seven preschoolers (mean age 4.7 ± 0.8 years) participated in a substudy that was embedded within a larger project. Children completed the 'Stars-in-Jars' task, which involved learning to select rewarded jars and avoid punished jars. Maternal report of responsiveness to socialization was assessed with the Punishment Insensitivity and Low Concern for Others scales of the Multidimensional Assessment of Preschool Disruptive Behavior (MAP-DB). RESULTS: Punishment Insensitivity, but not Low Concern for Others, was significantly associated with reinforcement learning in multivariate models that accounted for age and sex. Specifically, higher Punishment Insensitivity was associated with significantly lower overall performance and more errors on punished trials ('passive avoidance'). CONCLUSIONS: Impairments in reinforcement learning manifest in preschoolers who are high in maternal ratings of Punishment Insensitivity. If replicated, these findings may help to pinpoint the neurodevelopmental antecedents of psychopathic tendencies and suggest novel intervention targets beginning in early childhood.

The impact of neighborhood, family, and individual risk factors on toddlers' disruptive behavior.

Disadvantaged neighborhoods confer risk for behavior problems in school-aged children but their impact in toddlerhood is unknown. Relations between toddlers' disruptive behavior and neighborhood disadvantage, family disadvantage, violence or conflict exposure, parent depressive symptoms, and parenting behavior were examined using multilevel, multigroup (girl-boy) models. Participants were 1,204 families (mean child age = 24.7 months). Unique associations between disruptive behavior and all risk factors were observed, but the effect of neighborhood disadvantage was negligible when all of the more proximal factors were accounted for. The results suggest both that children in disadvantaged neighborhoods are at greater risk of behavior problems than children in nondisadvantaged neighborhoods and that optimal prevention/intervention work with these children will attend to proximal risk factors.

Young child socioemotional/behavioral problems and cumulative psychosocial risk.

Limited information is available about the rates and risk correlates of socioemotional/behavioral problems in young children in pediatric primary care settings serving low-income families. Our objective was to determine rates of clinically significant socioemotional/behavior problems in 12- to 48-month-olds from low-income families and identify associations between problems and individual and cumulative demographic and psychosocial risks. In this study, 378 Spanish- and English-speaking mothers attending a pediatric primary care practice serving low-income families were surveyed before well-child visits to assess socioemotional/behavioral problems (Brief Infant-Toddler Social-Emotional Assessment; M.J. Briggs-Gowan & A.S. Carter, ) and psychosocial and demographic risks (e.g., unemployment, low social support) (Parent Risk Questionnaire; D.I. Lowell, A.S. Carter, L. Godoy, B. Paulicin, & M.J. Briggs-Gowan, ). We found that 19.8% of children had clinically significant problems, and 53.2% experienced one or more psychosocial risks. Clinically significant socioemotional/behavioral problems were modestly to strongly associated with individual psychosocial risks, with the strongest associations with parental medical problems, parent depression/anxiety, and extreme parental distress, Adjusted Relative Risk (ARR) = 4.8-6.6, p < .0001. Cumulative demographic and psychosocial risk were uniquely associated with clinically significant problems, particularly among children experiencing three to four psychosocial risks, ARR = 3.0-11.6, p < .05. Psychosocial risks affect the majority of low-income families with young children, with a steep increase in likelihood of clinically significant socioemotional/behavioral problems as risks accumulate, underscoring the need to address both socioemotional/behavioral issues and psychosocial risk in young children.

The Moderating and Mediating Role of Responsive Parenting Behavior in Explaining the Link between Intimate Partner Violence and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Young Children.

Responsive parenting serves an influential role in explaining the link between children's exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) and children's mental health impairment, but how this occurs is not well elucidated. In some cases, researchers examine parenting as a mediator to explain how IPV leads to maladaptive outcomes (i.e., IPV negatively impacts one's capacity for responsive parenting, which in turn impacts children), whereas others examine moderation in which either the absence of responsive parenting exacerbates adverse outcomes or increased responsive parenting buffers risk. Mediation addresses theoretical questions about how or why IPV leads to maladaptive outcomes, whereas moderation addresses who might be most impacted. However, responsive parenting has rarely, if ever, been tested as both a mediator and moderator of the link between IPV and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) within the same sample. The current study examined the mediating and moderating role of responsive parenting on physical IPV exposure and child PTSS in a longitudinal sample of 391 children ages 3 to 5 years (M = 4.74, SD = 0.89). Self-report measures of physical IPV exposure, parenting practices, and PTSS were completed by mothers. We found that responsive parenting significantly moderated and mediated the association between physical IPV exposure and child PTSS over time. Studies that include tests of both moderation and mediation are critical for advancing mechanistic insight into the role of parenting in the etiology of mental health impairment in children exposed to IPV.