Common anesthetic used in preclinical PET imaging inhibits metabolism of the PET tracer [18F]3F4AP.

Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging studies in laboratory animals are almost always performed under isoflurane anesthesia to ensure that the subject stays still during the image acquisition. Isoflurane is effective, safe, and easy to use, and it is generally assumed to not have an impact on the imaging results. Motivated by marked differences observed in the brain uptake and metabolism of the PET tracer 3-[18F]fluoro-4-aminopyridine [(18F]3F4AP) between human and nonhuman primate studies, this study investigates the possible effect of isoflurane on this process. Mice received [18F]3F4AP injection while awake or under anesthesia and the tracer brain uptake and metabolism was compared between groups. A separate group of mice received the known cytochrome P450 2E1 inhibitor disulfiram prior to tracer administration. Isoflurane was found to largely abolish tracer metabolism in mice (74.8 ± 1.6 vs. 17.7 ± 1.7% plasma parent fraction, % PF) resulting in a 4.0-fold higher brain uptake in anesthetized mice at 35 min post-radiotracer administration. Similar to anesthetized mice, animals that received disulfiram showed reduced metabolism (50.0 ± 6.9% PF) and a 2.2-fold higher brain signal than control mice. The higher brain uptake and lower metabolism of [18F]3F4AP observed in anesthetized mice compared to awake mice are attributed to isoflurane's interference in the CYP2E1-mediated breakdown of the tracer, which was confirmed by reproducing the effect upon treatment with the known CYP2E1 inhibitor disulfiram. These findings underscore the critical need to examine the effect of isoflurane in PET imaging studies before translating tracers to humans that will be scanned without anesthesia.

Metabolic Stability of the Demyelination Positron Emission Tomography Tracer [18F]3-Fluoro-4-Aminopyridine and Identification of Its Metabolites.

[18F]3-fluoro-4-aminopyridine ([18F]3F4AP) is a positron emission tomography (PET) tracer for imaging demyelination based on the multiple sclerosis drug 4-aminopyridine (4AP, dalfampridine). This radiotracer was found to be stable in rodents and nonhuman primates imaged under isoflurane anesthesia. However, recent findings indicate that its stability is greatly decreased in awake humans and mice. Since both 4AP and isoflurane are metabolized primarily by cytochrome P450 enzymes, particularly cytochrome P450 family 2 subfamily E member 1 (CYP2E1), we postulated that this enzyme may be responsible for the metabolism of 3F4AP. Here, we investigated the metabolism of [18F]3F4AP by CYP2E1 and identified its metabolites. We also investigated whether deuteration, a common approach to increase the stability of drugs, could improve its stability. Our results demonstrate that CYP2E1 readily metabolizes 3F4AP and its deuterated analogs and that the primary metabolites are 5-hydroxy-3F4AP and 3F4AP N-oxide. Although deuteration did not decrease the rate of the CYP2E1-mediated oxidation, our findings explain the diminished in vivo stability of 3F4AP compared with 4AP and further our understanding of when deuteration may improve the metabolic stability of drugs and PET ligands. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The demyelination tracer [18F]3F4AP was found to undergo rapid metabolism in humans, which could compromise its utility. Understanding the enzymes and metabolic products involved may offer strategies to reduce metabolism. Using a combination of in vitro assays and chemical syntheses, this report shows that cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2E1 is likely responsible for [18F]3F4AP metabolism, that 4-amino-5-fluoroprydin-3-ol (5-hydroxy-3F4AP, 5OH3F4AP) and 4-amino-3-fluoropyridine 1-oxide (3F4AP N-oxide) are the main metabolites, and that deuteration is unlikely to improve the stability of the tracer in vivo.

Human biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of the demyelination tracer [18F]3F4AP.

PURPOSE: [18F]3F4AP is a novel PET radiotracer that targets voltage-gated potassium (K+) channels and has shown promise for imaging demyelinated lesions in animal models of neurological diseases. This study aimed to evaluate the biodistribution, safety, and radiation dosimetry of [18F]3F4AP in healthy human volunteers. METHODS: Four healthy volunteers (2 females) underwent a 4-h dynamic PET scan from the cranial vertex to mid-thigh using multiple bed positions after administration of 368 ± 17.9 MBq (9.94 ± 0.48 mCi) of [18F]3F4AP. Volumes of interest for relevant organs were manually drawn guided by the CT, and PET images and time-activity curves (TACs) were extracted. Radiation dosimetry was estimated from the integrated TACs using OLINDA software. Safety assessments included measuring vital signs immediately before and after the scan, monitoring for adverse events, and obtaining a comprehensive metabolic panel and electrocardiogram within 30 days before and after the scan. RESULTS: [18F]3F4AP distributed throughout the body with the highest levels of activity in the kidneys, urinary bladder, stomach, liver, spleen, and brain and with low accumulation in muscle and fat. The tracer cleared quickly from circulation and from most organs. The clearance of the tracer was noticeably faster than previously reported in nonhuman primates (NHPs). The average effective dose (ED) across all subjects was 12.1 ± 2.2 µSv/MBq, which is lower than the estimated ED from the NHP studies (21.6 ± 0.6 µSv/MBq) as well as the ED of other fluorine-18 radiotracers such as [18F]FDG (~ 20 µSv/MBq). No differences in ED between males and females were observed. No substantial changes in safety assessments or adverse events were recorded. CONCLUSION: The biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of [18F]3F4AP in humans are reported for the first time. The average total ED across four subjects was lower than most 18F-labeled PET tracers. The tracer and study procedures were well tolerated, and no adverse events occurred.

Broad-scope Syntheses of [11 C/18 F]Trifluoromethylarenes from Aryl(mesityl)iodonium Salts.

Efficient methods for labeling aryl trifluoromethyl groups to provide novel radiotracers for use in biomedical research with positron emission tomography (PET) are keenly sought. We report a broad-scope method for labeling trifluoromethylarenes with either carbon-11 (t1/2 =20.4 min) or fluorine-18 (t1/2 =109.8 min) from readily accessible aryl(mesityl)iodonium salts. In this method, the aryl(mesityl)iodonium salt is treated rapidly with no-carrier-added [11 C]CuCF3 or [18 F]CuCF3 . The mesityl group acts as a spectator allowing radiolabeled trifluoromethylarenes to be obtained with very high chemoselectivity. Radiochemical yields from aryl(mesityl)iodonium salts bearing either electron-donating or electron-withdrawing groups at meta- or para- position are good to excellent (67-96 %). Ortho-substituted and otherwise sterically hindered trifluoromethylarenes still give good yields (15-34 %). Substituted heteroaryl(mesityl)iodonium salts are also viable substrates. The broad scope of this method was further exemplified by labeling a previously inaccessible target, [11 C]p-trifluoromethylphenyl boronic acid, as a potentially useful labeling synthon. In addition, fluoxetine, leflunomide, and 3-trifluoromethyl-4-aminopyridine, as examples of small drug-like molecules and candidate PET radioligands, were successfully labeled in high yields (69-81 %).

Sensitivity to myelin using model-free analysis of the water resonance line-shape in postmortem mouse brain.

PURPOSE: Dysmyelinating diseases are characterized by abnormal myelin formation and function. Such microstructural abnormalities in myelin have been demonstrated to produce measurable effects on the MR signal. This work examines these effects on measurements of voxel-wise, high-resolution water spectra acquired using a 3D echo-planar spectroscopic imaging (EPSI) pulse sequence from both postmortem fixed control mouse brains and a dysmyelination mouse brain model. METHODS: Perfusion fixed, resected control (n = 5) and shiverer (n = 4) mouse brains were imaged using 3D-EPSI with 100 µm isotropic resolution. The free induction decay (FID) was sampled every 2.74 ms over 192 echoes, for a total sampling duration of 526.08 ms. Voxel-wise FIDs were Fourier transformed to produce water spectra with 1.9 Hz resolution. Spectral asymmetry was computed and compared between the two tissue types. RESULTS: The water resonance is more asymmetrically broadened in the white matter of control mouse brain compared with dysmyelinated white matter. In control brain, this is modulated by and consistent with previously reported orientationally dependent effects of white matter relative to B0 . Similar sensitivity to orientation is observed in dysmyelinated white matter as well; however, the magnitude of the resonance asymmetry is much lower across all directions. CONCLUSION: Results demonstrate that components of the spectra are specifically differentially affected by myelin concentration. This suggests that water proton spectra may be sensitive to the presence of myelin, and as such, could serve as a MRI-based biomarker of dysmyelinating disease, free of mathematical models.

Detecting Demyelination by PET: The Lesion as Imaging Target.

Noninvasive imaging of demyelination and remyelination is critical for diagnosis and clinical management of demyelinating diseases. Positron emission tomography (PET) has the potential to complement magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) by providing a quantitative measure specific to demyelination. In Brugarolas et al's study 1 , we describe the development of the first PET tracer for voltage-gated K+ channels based on a clinically approved drug for multiple sclerosis that can be used for imaging demyelination in animal models.

An efficient new method for the synthesis of 3-[18 F]fluoro-4-aminopyridine via Yamada-Curtius rearrangement.

4-Aminopyridine is a clinically approved drug to improve motor symptoms in multiple sclerosis. A fluorine-18-labeled derivative of this drug, 3-[18 F]fluoro-4-aminopyridine, is currently under investigation for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of demyelination. Herein, the Yamada-Curtius reaction has been successfully applied for the preparation of this PET radioligand with a better radiochemical yield and improved specific activity. The overall radiochemical yield was 5 to 15% (n = 12, uncorrected) with a specific activity of 37 to 148 GBq/µmol (end of synthesis) in a 90 minute synthesis time. It is expected that this 1 pot Yamada-Curtius reaction can be used to prepare similar fluorine-18-labeled amino substituted heterocycles.

Molecular mechanism of quinone signaling mediated through S-quinonization of a YodB family repressor QsrR.

Quinone molecules are intracellular electron-transport carriers, as well as critical intra- and extracellular signals. However, transcriptional regulation of quinone signaling and its molecular basis are poorly understood. Here, we identify a thiol-stress-sensing regulator YodB family transcriptional regulator as a central component of quinone stress response of Staphylococcus aureus, which we have termed the quinone-sensing and response repressor (QsrR). We also identify and confirm an unprecedented quinone-sensing mechanism based on the S-quinonization of the essential residue Cys-5. Structural characterizations of the QsrR-DNA and QsrR-menadione complexes further reveal that the covalent association of menadione directly leads to the release of QsrR from operator DNA following a 10° rigid-body rotation as well as a 9-Å elongation between the dimeric subunits. The molecular level characterization of this quinone-sensing transcriptional regulator provides critical insights into quinone-mediated gene regulation in human pathogens.

Chemical and biophysical characterization of novel potassium channel blocker 3-fluoro-5-methylpyridin-4-amine.

4-aminopyridine (4AP) is a potassium (K+) channel blocker used clinically to improve walking in people with multiple sclerosis (MS). 4AP binds to exposed K+ channels in demyelinated axons, reducing the leakage of intracellular K+ and enhancing impulse conduction. Multiple derivatives of 4AP capable of blocking K+ channels have been reported including three radiolabeled with positron emitting isotopes for imaging demyelinated lesions using positron emission tomography (PET). However, there remains a demand for novel molecules with suitable physicochemical properties and binding affinity that can potentially be radiolabeled and used as PET radiotracers. In this study, we introduce 3-fluoro-5-methylpyridin-4-amine (5Me3F4AP) as a novel trisubstituted K+ channel blocker with potential application in PET. 5Me3F4AP has comparable potency to 4AP and the PET tracer 3-fluoro-4-aminopyridine (3F4AP). Compared to 3F4AP, 5Me3F4AP exhibits comparable basicity (pKa = 7.46 ± 0.01 vs. 7.37 ± 0.07, P-value = 0.08), greater lipophilicity (logD = 0.664 ± 0.005 vs. 0.414 ± 0.002, P-value < 0.0001) and higher permeability to an artificial brain membrane (Pe = 88.1 ± 18.3 vs. 31.1 ± 2.9 nm/s, P-value = 0.03). 5Me3F4AP is also more stable towards oxidation in vitro by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2E1 (IC50 = 36.2 ± 2.5 vs. 15.4 ± 5.1, P-value = 0.0003); the enzyme responsible for the metabolism of 4AP and 3F4AP. Taken together, 5Me3F4AP has promising properties as a candidate for PET imaging warranting additional investigation.

Imaging demyelinated axons after spinal cord injuries with PET tracer [ 18 F]3F4AP.

Spinal cord injuries (SCI) often lead to lifelong disability. Among the various types of injuries, incomplete and discomplete injuries, where some axons remain intact, offer potential for recovery. However, demyelination of these spared axons can worsen disability. Demyelination is a reversible phenomenon, and drugs like 4-aminopyridine (4AP), which target K+ channels in demyelinated axons, show that conduction can be restored. Yet, accurately assessing and monitoring demyelination post-SCI remains challenging due to the lack of suitable imaging methods. In this study, we introduce a novel approach utilizing the positron emission tomography (PET) tracer, [ 18 F]3F4AP, specifically targeting K+ channels in demyelinated axons for SCI imaging. Rats with incomplete contusion injuries were imaged up to one month post-injury, revealing [ 18 F]3F4AP's exceptional sensitivity to injury and its ability to detect temporal changes. Further validation through autoradiography and immunohistochemistry confirmed [ 18 F]3F4AP's targeting of demyelinated axons. In a proof-of-concept study involving human subjects, [ 18 F]3F4AP differentiated between a severe and a largely recovered incomplete injury, indicating axonal loss and demyelination, respectively. Moreover, alterations in tracer delivery were evident on dynamic PET images, suggestive of differences in spinal cord blood flow between the injuries. In conclusion, [ 18 F]3F4AP demonstrates efficacy in detecting incomplete SCI in both animal models and humans. The potential for monitoring post-SCI demyelination changes and response to therapy underscores the utility of [ 18 F]3F4AP in advancing our understanding and management of spinal cord injuries.

Radiosynthesis automation, non-human primate biodistribution and dosimetry of K+ channel tracer [11C]3MeO4AP.

BACKGROUND: 4-Aminopyridine (4AP) is a medication for the symptomatic treatment of multiple sclerosis. Several 4AP-based PET tracers have been developed for imaging demyelination. In preclinical studies, [11C]3MeO4AP has shown promise due to its high brain permeability, high metabolic stability, high plasma availability, and high in vivo binding affinity. To prepare for the translation to human studies, we developed a cGMP-compatible automated radiosynthesis protocol and evaluated the whole-body biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of [11C]3MeO4AP in non-human primates (NHPs). METHODS: Automated radiosynthesis was carried out using a GE TRACERlab FX-C Pro synthesis module. One male and one female adult rhesus macaques were used in the study. A high-resolution CT from cranial vertex to knee was acquired. PET data were collected using a dynamic acquisition protocol with four bed positions and 13 passes over a total scan time of ~ 150 min. Based on the CT and PET images, volumes of interest (VOIs) were manually drawn for selected organs. Non-decay corrected time-activity curves (TACs) were extracted for each VOI. Radiation dosimetry and effective dose were calculated from the integrated TACs using OLINDA software. RESULTS: Fully automated radiosynthesis of [11C]3MeO4AP was achieved with 7.3 ± 1.2% (n = 4) of non-decay corrected radiochemical yield within 38 min of synthesis and purification time. [11C]3MeO4AP distributed quickly throughout the body and into the brain. The organs with highest dose were the kidneys. The average effective dose of [11C]3MeO4AP was 4.0 ± 0.6 µSv/MBq. No significant changes in vital signs were observed during the scan. CONCLUSION: A cGMP-compatible automated radiosynthesis of [11C]3MeO4AP was developed. The whole-body biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of [11C]3MeO4AP was successfully evaluated in NHPs. [11C]3MeO4AP shows lower average effective dose than [18F]3F4AP and similar average effective dose as other carbon-11 tracers.

The oxidation-sensing regulator (MosR) is a new redox-dependent transcription factor in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis thrives in oxidative environments such as the macrophage. To survive, the bacterium must sense and adapt to the oxidative conditions. Several antioxidant defenses including a thick cell wall, millimolar concentrations of small molecule thiols, and protective enzymes are known to help the bacterium withstand the oxidative stress. However, oxidation-sensing regulators that control these defenses have remained elusive. In this study, we report a new oxidation-sensing regulator, Rv1049 or MosR (M. tuberculosis oxidation-sensing regulator). MosR is a transcriptional repressor of the MarR family, which, similarly to Bacillus subtilis OhrR and Staphylococcus aureus MgrA, dissociates from DNA in the presence of oxidants, enabling transcription. MosR senses oxidation through a pair of cysteines near the N terminus (Cys-10 and Cys-12) that upon oxidation forms a disulfide bond. Disulfide formation rearranges a network of hydrogen bonds, which leads to a large conformational change of the protein and dissociation from DNA. MosR has been shown previously to play an important role in survival of the bacterium in the macrophage. In this study, we show that the main role of MosR is to up-regulate expression of rv1050 (a putative exported oxidoreductase that has not yet been characterized) in response to oxidants and propose that it is through this role that MosR contributes to the bacterium survival in the macrophage.

Common anesthetic used in preclinical PET imaging inhibits metabolism of the PET tracer [ 18 F]3F4AP.

PET imaging studies in laboratory animals are almost always performed under isoflurane anesthesia to ensure that the subject stays still during the image acquisition. Isoflurane is effective, safe, and easy to use, and it is generally assumed to not have an impact on the imaging results. Motivated by marked differences observed in [ 18 F]3F4AP brain uptake and metabolism between human and nonhuman primate studies, this study investigates the possible effect of isoflurane on [ 18 F]3F4AP metabolism and brain uptake. Isoflurane was found to largely abolish tracer metabolism in mice resulting in a 3.3-fold higher brain uptake in anesthetized mice at 35 min post radiotracer administration, which replicated the observed effect in unanesthetized humans and anesthetized monkeys. This effect is attributed to isoflurane's interference in the CYP2E1-mediated breakdown of [ 18 F]3F4AP, which was confirmed by reproducing a higher brain uptake and metabolic stability upon treatment with the known CYP2E1 inhibitor disulfiram. These findings underscore the critical need to examine the effect of isoflurane in PET imaging studies before translating tracers to humans that will be scanned without anesthesia.

Chemical and biophysical characterization of novel potassium channel blocker 3-fluoro-5-methylpyridin-4-amine.

4-aminopyridine (4AP) is a potassium (K+) channel blocker used clinically to improve walking in people with multiple sclerosis (MS). 4AP binds to exposed K+ channels in demyelinated axons, reducing the leakage of intracellular K+ and enhancing impulse conduction. Multiple derivatives of 4AP capable of blocking K+ channels have been reported including three radiolabeled with positron emitting isotopes for imaging demyelinated lesions using positron emission tomography (PET). Here, we describe 3-fluoro-5-methylpyridin-4-amine (5Me3F4AP), a novel K+ channel blocker with potential application in PET. 5Me3F4AP has comparable potency to 4AP and the PET tracer 3-fluoro-4-aminopyridine (3F4AP). Compared to 3F4AP, 5Me3F4AP is more lipophilic (logD = 0.664 ± 0.005 vs. 0.414 ± 0.002) and slightly more basic (pKa = 7.46 ± 0.01 vs. 7.37 ± 0.07). In addition, 5Me3F4AP appears to be more permeable to an artificial brain membrane and more stable towards oxidation by the cytochrome P450 enzyme family 2 subfamily E member 1 (CYP2E1), responsible for the metabolism of 4AP and 3F4AP. Taken together, 5Me3F4AP has promising properties for PET imaging warranting additional investigation.

Radiosynthesis automation, non-human primate biodistribution and dosimetry of K + channel tracer [ 11 C]3MeO4AP.

Purpose: 4-Aminopyridine (4AP) is a medication for the symptomatic treatment of multiple sclerosis. Several 4AP-based PET tracers have been developed for imaging demyelination. In preclinical studies, [ 11 C]3MeO4AP has shown promise due to its high brain permeability, high metabolic stability, high plasma availability, and high in vivo binding affinity. To prepare for the translation to human studies, we developed a cGMP-compliant automated radiosynthesis protocol and evaluated the whole-body biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of [ 11 C]3MeO4AP in non-human primates (NHPs). Methods: Automated radiosynthesis was carried out using a GE TRACERlab FX-C Pro synthesis module. One male and one female adult rhesus macaques were used in the study. A high-resolution CT from cranial vertex to knee was acquired. PET data were collected using a dynamic acquisition protocol with 4 bed positions and 13 passes over a total scan time of ∼150 minutes. Based on the CT and PET images, volumes of interest (VOIs) were manually drawn for selected organs. Non-decay corrected time-activity curves (TACs) were extracted for each VOI. Radiation dosimetry and effective dose were calculated from the integrated TACs using OLINDA software. Results: Fully automated radiosynthesis of [ 11 C]3MeO4AP was achieved with 7.3 ± 1.2 % (n = 4) of non-decay corrected radiochemical yield within 38 min of synthesis and purification time. [ 11 C]3MeO4AP distributed quickly throughout the body and into the brain. The organs with highest dose were the kidneys. The average effective dose of [ 11 C]3MeO4AP was 4.27 ± 0.57 µSv/MBq. No significant changes in vital signs were observed during the scan. Conclusion: The cGMP compliant automated radiosynthesis of [ 11 C]3MeO4AP was developed. The whole-body biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of [ 11 C]3MeO4AP was successfully evaluated in NHPs. [ 11 C]3MeO4AP shows lower average effective dose than [ 18 F]3F4AP and similar average effective dose as other carbon-11 tracers.

Evaluation of trans- and cis-4-[18F]Fluorogabapentin for Brain PET Imaging.

Gabapentin, a selective ligand for the α2δ subunit of voltage-dependent calcium channels, is an anticonvulsant medication used in the treatment of neuropathic pain, epilepsy, and other neurological conditions. We recently described two radiofluorinated derivatives of gabapentin (trans-4-[18F]fluorogabapentin, [18F]tGBP4F, and cis-4-[18F]fluorogabapentin, [18F]cGBP4F) and showed that these compounds accumulate in the injured nerves in a rodent model of neuropathic pain. Given the use of gabapentin in brain diseases, here we investigate whether these radiofluorinated derivatives of gabapentin can be used for imaging α2δ receptors in the brain. Specifically, we developed automated radiosynthesis methods for [18F]tGBP4F and [18F]cGBP4F and conducted dynamic PET imaging in adult rhesus macaques with and without preadministration of pharmacological doses of gabapentin. Both radiotracers showed very high metabolic stability, negligible plasma protein binding, and slow accumulation in the brain. [18F]tGBP4F, the isomer with higher binding affinity, showed low brain uptake and could not be displaced, whereas [18F]cGBP4F showed moderate brain uptake and could be partially displaced. Kinetic modeling of brain regional time-activity curves using a metabolite-corrected arterial input function shows that a one-tissue compartment model accurately fits the data. Graphical analysis using Logan or multilinear analysis 1 produced similar results as compartmental modeling, indicating robust quantification. This study advances our understanding of how gabapentinoids work and provides an important advancement toward imaging α2δ receptors in the brain.

Evaluation of trans- and cis-4-[18F]fluorogabapentin for brain PET imaging.

Gabapentin, a selective ligand for the α2δ subunit of voltage-dependent calcium channels, is an anticonvulsant medication used in the treatment of neuropathic pain, epilepsy and other neurological conditions. We recently described two radiofluorinated derivatives of gabapentin (trans-4-[18F]fluorogabapentin, [18F]tGBP4F, and cis-4-[18F]fluorogabapentin, [18F]cGBP4F) and showed that these compounds accumulate in the injured nerves in a rodent model of neuropathic pain. Given the use of gabapentin in brain diseases, here we investigate whether these radiofluorinated derivatives of gabapentin can be used for imaging α2δ receptors in the brain. Specifically, we developed automated radiosynthesis methods for [18F]tGBP4F and [18F]cGBP4F and conducted dynamic PET imaging in adult rhesus macaques with and without preadministration of pharmacological doses of gabapentin. Both radiotracers showed very high metabolic stability, negligible plasma protein binding and slow accumulation in the brain. [18F]tGBP4F, the isomer with higher binding affinity, showed low brain uptake and could not be displaced whereas [18F]cGBP4F showed moderate brain uptake and could be partially displaced. Kinetic modeling of brain regional time-activity curves using a metabolite-corrected arterial input function shows that a 1-tissue compartment model accurately fits the data. Graphical analysis using Logan or multilinear analysis 1 produced similar results as compartmental modeling indicating robust quantification. This study advances our understanding of how gabapentinoids work and provides an important advancement towards imaging α2δ receptors in the brain.

Binding of ReO4(-) with an engineered MoO4(2-)-binding protein: towards a new approach in radiopharmaceutical applications.

Radiolabeled biomolecules are routinely used for clinical diagnostics. (99m)Tc is the most commonly used radioactive tracer in radiopharmaceuticals. (188)Re and (186)Re are also commonly used as radioactive tracers in medicine. However, currently available methods for radiolabeling are lengthy and involve several steps in bioconjugation processes. In this work we present a strategy to engineer proteins that may selectively recognize the perrhenate (ReO(4)(-)) ion as a new way to label proteins. We found that a molybdate (MoO(4)(2-))-binding protein (ModA) from Escherichia coli can bind perrhenate with high affinity. Using fluorescence and isothermal titration calorimetry measurements, we determined the dissociation constant of ModA for ReO(4)(-) to be 541 nM and we solved a crystal structure of ModA with a bound ReO(4)(-). On the basis of the structure we created a mutant protein containing a disulfide linkage, which exhibited increased affinity for perrhenate (K(d) = 104 nM). High-resolution crystal structures of ModA (1.7 Å) and A11C/R153C mutant (2.0 Å) were solved with bound perrhenate. Both structures show that a perrhenate ion occupies the molybdate binding site using the same amino acid residues that are involved in molybdate binding. The overall structure of the perrhenate-bound ModA is unchanged compared with that of the molybdate-bound form. In the mutant protein, the bound perrhenate is further stabilized by the engineered disulfide bond.

Development of a PET radioligand for α2δ-1 subunit of calcium channels for imaging neuropathic pain.

Neuropathic pain affects 7-10% of the adult population. Being able to accurately monitor biological changes underlying neuropathic pain will improve our understanding of neuropathic pain mechanisms and facilitate the development of novel therapeutics. Positron emission tomography (PET) is a noninvasive molecular imaging technique that can provide quantitative information of biochemical changes at the whole-body level by using radiolabeled ligands. One important biological change underlying the development of neuropathic pain is the overexpression of α2δ-1 subunit of voltage-dependent calcium channels (the target of gabapentin). Thus, we hypothesized that a radiolabeled form of gabapentin may allow imaging changes in α2δ-1 for monitoring the underlying pathophysiology of neuropathic pain. Here, we report the development of two 18F-labeled derivatives of gabapentin (trans-4-[18F]fluorogabapentin and cis-4-[18F]fluorogabapentin) and their evaluation in healthy rats and a rat model of neuropathic pain (spinal nerve ligation model). Both isomers were found to selectively bind to the α2δ-1 receptor with trans-4-[18F]fluorogabapentin having higher affinity. Both tracers displayed around 1.5- to 2-fold increased uptake in injured nerves over the contralateral uninjured nerves when measured by gamma counting ex vivo. Although the small size of the nerves and the signal from surrounding muscle prevented visualizing these changes using PET, this work demonstrates that fluorinated derivatives of gabapentin retain binding to α2δ-1 and that their radiolabeled forms can be used to detect pathological changes in vitro and ex vivo. Furthermore, this work confirms that α2δ-1 is a promising target for imaging specific features of neuropathic pain.

PET imaging of mitochondrial function in acute doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity: a proof-of-principle study.

Mitochondrial dysfunction plays a key role in doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity (DIC). In this proof-of-principle study, we investigated whether PET mapping of cardiac membrane potential, an indicator of mitochondrial function, could detect an acute cardiotoxic effect of doxorubicin (DOX) in a large animal model. Eight Yucatan pigs were imaged dynamically with [18F](4-Fluorophenyl)triphenylphosphonium ([18F]FTPP+) PET/CT. Our experimental protocol included a control saline infusion into the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) followed by a DOX test infusion of either 1 mg/kg or 2 mg/kg during PET. We measured the change in total cardiac membrane potential (ΔΨT), a proxy for the mitochondrial membrane potential, ΔΨm, after the saline and DOX infusions. We observed a partial depolarization of the mitochondria following the DOX infusions, which occurred only in myocardial areas distal to the intracoronary catheter, thereby demonstrating a direct association between the exposure of the mitochondria to DOX and a change in ΔΨT. Furthermore, doubling the DOX dose caused a more severe depolarization of myocardium in the LAD territory distal to the infusion catheter. In conclusion, [18F]FTPP+ PET-based ΔΨT mapping can measure partial depolarization of myocardial mitochondria following intracoronary DOX infusion in a large animal model.