Immunity to tomato yellow leaf curl virus in transgenic tomato is associated with accumulation of transgene small RNA.

Gene silencing is a natural defense response of plants against invading RNA and DNA viruses. The RNA post-transcriptional silencing system has been commonly utilized to generate transgenic crop plants that are "immune" to plant virus infection. Here, we applied this approach against the devastating DNA virus tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) in its host tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). To generate broad resistance to a number of different TYLCV viruses, three conserved sequences (the intergenic region [NCR], V1-V2 and C1-C2 genes) from the genome of the severe virus (TYLCV) were synthesized as a single insert and cloned into a hairpin configuration in a binary vector, which was used to transform TYLCV-susceptible tomato plants. Eight of 28 independent transgenic tomato lines exhibited immunity to TYLCV-Is and to TYLCV-Mld, but not to tomato yellow leaf curl Sardinia virus, which shares relatively low sequence homology with the transgene. In addition, a marker-free (nptII-deleted) transgenic tomato line was generated for the first time by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation without antibiotic selection, followed by screening of 1180 regenerated shoots by whitefly-mediated TYLCV inoculation. Resistant lines showed a high level of transgene-siRNA (t-siRNA) accumulation (22% of total small RNA) with dominant sizes of 21 nt (73%) and 22 nt (22%). The t-siRNA displayed hot-spot distribution ("peaks") along the transgene, with different distribution patterns than the viral-siRNA peaks observed in TYLCV-infected tomato. A grafting experiment demonstrated the mobility of 0.04% of the t-siRNA from transgenic rootstock to non-transformed scion, even though scion resistance against TYLCV was not achieved.

Comparison of the genome sequences of "Candidatus Portiera aleyrodidarum" primary endosymbionts of the whitefly Bemisia tabaci B and Q biotypes.

"Candidatus Portiera aleyrodidarum" is the primary endosymbiont of whiteflies. We report two complete genome sequences of this bacterium from the worldwide invasive B and Q biotypes of the whitefly Bemisia tabaci. Differences in the two genome sequences may add insights into the complex differences in the biology of both biotypes.

Genome sequences of the primary endosymbiont "Candidatus Portiera aleyrodidarum" in the whitefly Bemisia tabaci B and Q biotypes.

"Candidatus Portiera aleyrodidarum" is the obligate primary endosymbiotic bacterium of whiteflies, including the sweet potato whitefly Bemisia tabaci, and provides essential nutrients to its host. Here we report two complete genome sequences of this bacterium from the B and Q biotypes of B. tabaci.

Transovarial transmission of Rickettsia spp. and organ-specific infection of the whitefly Bemisia tabaci.

The whitefly Bemisia tabaci is a cosmopolitan insect pest that harbors Portiera aleyrodidarum, the primary obligatory symbiotic bacterium, and several facultative secondary symbionts. Secondary symbionts in B. tabaci are generally associated with the bacteriome, ensuring their vertical transmission; however, Rickettsia is an exception and occupies most of the body cavity, except the bacteriome. The mode of Rickettsia transfer between generations and its subcellular localization in insect organs have not been investigated. Using electron and fluorescence microscopy, we show that Rickettsia infects the digestive, salivary, and reproductive organs of the insect; however, it was not observed in the bacteriome. Rickettsia invades the oocytes during early developmental stages and resides in follicular cells and cytoplasm; it is mostly excluded when the egg matures; however, some bacterial cells remain in the egg, ensuring their transfer to subsequent generations. Rickettsia was localized to testicles and the spermatheca, suggesting a horizontal transfer between males and females during mating. The bacterium was further observed at large amounts in midgut cells, concentrating in vacuole-like structures, and was located in the hemolymph, specifically at exceptionally large amounts around bacteriocytes and in fat bodies. Organs further infected by Rickettsia included the primary salivary glands and stylets, sites of possible secretion of the bacterium outside the whitefly body. The close association between Rickettsia and the B. tabaci digestive system might be important for digestive purposes. The vertical transmission of Rickettsia to subsequent generations occurs via the oocyte and not, like other secondary symbionts, the bacteriome.

The transmission efficiency of tomato yellow leaf curl virus by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci is correlated with the presence of a specific symbiotic bacterium species.

Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) (Geminiviridae: Begomovirus) is exclusively vectored by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). TYLCV transmission depends upon a 63-kDa GroEL protein produced by the vector's endosymbiotic bacteria. B. tabaci is a species complex comprising several genetically distinct biotypes that show different secondary-symbiont fauna. In Israel, the B biotype harbors Hamiltonella, and the Q biotype harbors Wolbachia and Arsenophonus. Both biotypes harbor Rickettsia and Portiera (the obligatory primary symbionts). The aim of this study was to determine which B. tabaci symbionts are involved in TYLCV transmission using B. tabaci populations collected in Israel. Virus transmission assays by B. tabaci showed that the B biotype efficiently transmits the virus, while the Q biotype scarcely transmits it. Yeast two-hybrid and protein pulldown assays showed that while the GroEL protein produced by Hamiltonella interacts with TYLCV coat protein, GroEL produced by Rickettsia and Portiera does not. To assess the role of Wolbachia and Arsenophonus GroEL proteins (GroELs), we used an immune capture PCR (IC-PCR) assay, employing in vivo- and in vitro-synthesized GroEL proteins from all symbionts and whitefly artificial feeding through membranes. Interaction between GroEL and TYLCV was found to occur in the B biotype, but not in the Q biotype. This assay further showed that release of virions protected by GroEL occurs adjacent to the primary salivary glands. Taken together, the GroEL protein produced by Hamiltonella (present in the B biotype, but absent in the Q biotype) facilitates TYLCV transmission. The other symbionts from both biotypes do not seem to be involved in transmission of this virus.

Post-transcriptional gene silencing and virus resistance in Nicotiana benthamiana expressing a Grapevine virus A minireplicon.

Grapevine virus A (GVA) is closely associated with the economically important rugose-wood disease of grapevine. In an attempt to develop GVA resistance, we made a GFP-tagged GVA-minireplicon and utilized it as a tool to consistently activate RNA silencing. Launching the GVA-minireplicon by agroinfiltration delivery resulted in a strong RNA silencing response. In light of this finding, we produced transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana plants expressing the GVA-minireplicon, which displayed phenotypes that could be attributed to reproducibly and consistently activate post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS). These included: (i) low accumulation of the minireplicon-derived transgene; (ii) low GFP expression that was increased upon agroinfiltration delivery of viral suppressors of silencing; and (iii) resistance against GVA infection, which was found in 60%, and in 90-95%, of T1 and T2 progenies, respectively. A grafting assay revealed that non-silenced scions exhibited GVA resistance when they were grafted onto silenced rootstocks, suggesting transmission of RNA silencing from silenced rootstocks to non-silenced scions. Despite being extremely resistant to GVA infection, the transgenic plants were susceptible to the closely related vitivirus, GVB. Furthermore, infection of the silenced plants with GVB or Potato virus Y (PVY) resulted in suppression of the GVA-specific defense. From these data we conclude that GVA-minireplicon-mediated RNA silencing provides an important and efficient approach for consistent activation of PTGS that can be used for controlling grapevine viruses. However, application of this strategy for virus resistance necessitates consideration of possible infection by other viruses.

Development of broad virus resistance in non-transgenic cucumber using CRISPR/Cas9 technology.

Genome editing in plants has been boosted tremendously by the development of CRISPR/Cas9 (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) technology. This powerful tool allows substantial improvement in plant traits in addition to those provided by classical breeding. Here, we demonstrate the development of virus resistance in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) using Cas9/subgenomic RNA (sgRNA) technology to disrupt the function of the recessive eIF4E (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E) gene. Cas9/sgRNA constructs were targeted to the N' and C' termini of the eIF4E gene. Small deletions and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were observed in the eIF4E gene targeted sites of transformed T1 generation cucumber plants, but not in putative off-target sites. Non-transgenic heterozygous eif4e mutant plants were selected for the production of non-transgenic homozygous T3 generation plants. Homozygous T3 progeny following Cas9/sgRNA that had been targeted to both eif4e sites exhibited immunity to Cucumber vein yellowing virus (Ipomovirus) infection and resistance to the potyviruses Zucchini yellow mosaic virus and Papaya ring spot mosaic virus-W. In contrast, heterozygous mutant and non-mutant plants were highly susceptible to these viruses. For the first time, virus resistance has been developed in cucumber, non-transgenically, not visibly affecting plant development and without long-term backcrossing, via a new technology that can be expected to be applicable to a wide range of crop plants.

Fluorescence in situ hybridizations (FISH) for the localization of viruses and endosymbiotic bacteria in plant and insect tissues.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a name given to a variety of techniques commonly used for visualizing gene transcripts in eukaryotic cells and can be further modified to visualize other components in the cell such as infection with viruses and bacteria. Spatial localization and visualization of viruses and bacteria during the infection process is an essential step that complements expression profiling experiments such as microarrays and RNAseq in response to different stimuli. Understanding the spatiotemporal infections with these agents complements biological experiments aimed at understanding their interaction with cellular components. Several techniques for visualizing viruses and bacteria such as reporter gene systems or immunohistochemical methods are time-consuming, and some are limited to work with model organisms and involve complex methodologies. FISH that targets RNA or DNA species in the cell is a relatively easy and fast method for studying spatiotemporal localization of genes and for diagnostic purposes. This method can be robust and relatively easy to implement when the protocols employ short hybridizing, commercially-purchased probes, which are not expensive. This is particularly robust when sample preparation, fixation, hybridization, and microscopic visualization do not involve complex steps. Here we describe a protocol for localization of bacteria and viruses in insect and plant tissues. The method is based on simple preparation, fixation, and hybridization of insect whole mounts and dissected organs or hand-made plant sections, with 20 base pairs short DNA probes conjugated to fluorescent dyes on their 5' or 3' ends. This protocol has been successfully applied to a number of insect and plant tissues, and can be used to analyze expression of mRNAs or other RNA or DNA species in the cell.

A simple, rapid and inexpensive method for localization of Tomato yellow leaf curl virus and Potato leafroll virus in plant and insect vectors.

A simple, rapid, inexpensive method for the localization of virus transcripts in plant and insect vector tissues is reported here. The method based on fluorescent in situ hybridization using short DNA oligonucleotides complementary to an RNA segment representing a virus transcript in the infected plant or insect vector. The DNA probe harbors a fluorescent molecule at its 5' or 3' ends. The protocol: simple fixation, hybridization, minimal washing and confocal microscopy, provides a highly specific signal. The reliability of the protocol was tested by localizing two phloem-limited plant virus transcripts in infected plants and insect tissues: Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) (Begomovirus: Geminiviridae), exclusively transmitted by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) in a circulative non-propagative manner, and Potato leafroll virus (Polerovirus: Luteoviridae), similarly transmitted by the aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer). Transcripts for both viruses were localized specifically to the phloem sieve elements of infected plants, while negative controls showed no signal. TYLCV transcripts were also localized to the digestive tract of B. tabaci, confirming TYLCV route of transmission. Compared to previous methods for localizing virus transcripts in plant and insect tissues that include complex steps for in-vitro probe preparation or antibody raising, tissue fixation, block preparation, sectioning and hybridization, the method described below provides very reliable, convincing, background-free results with much less time, effort and cost.