Plant and animal endemism in the eastern Andean slope: challenges to conservation.

BACKGROUND: The Andes-Amazon basin of Peru and Bolivia is one of the most data-poor, biologically rich, and rapidly changing areas of the world. Conservation scientists agree that this area hosts extremely high endemism, perhaps the highest in the world, yet we know little about the geographic distributions of these species and ecosystems within country boundaries. To address this need, we have developed conservation data on endemic biodiversity (~800 species of birds, mammals, amphibians, and plants) and terrestrial ecological systems (~90; groups of vegetation communities resulting from the action of ecological processes, substrates, and/or environmental gradients) with which we conduct a fine scale conservation prioritization across the Amazon watershed of Peru and Bolivia. We modelled the geographic distributions of 435 endemic plants and all 347 endemic vertebrate species, from existing museum and herbaria specimens at a regional conservation practitioner's scale (1:250,000-1:1,000,000), based on the best available tools and geographic data. We mapped ecological systems, endemic species concentrations, and irreplaceable areas with respect to national level protected areas. RESULTS: We found that sizes of endemic species distributions ranged widely (< 20 km2 to > 200,000 km2) across the study area. Bird and mammal endemic species richness was greatest within a narrow 2500-3000 m elevation band along the length of the Andes Mountains. Endemic amphibian richness was highest at 1000-1500 m elevation and concentrated in the southern half of the study area. Geographical distribution of plant endemism was highly taxon-dependent. Irreplaceable areas, defined as locations with the highest number of species with narrow ranges, overlapped slightly with areas of high endemism, yet generally exhibited unique patterns across the study area by species group. We found that many endemic species and ecological systems are lacking national-level protection; a third of endemic species have distributions completely outside of national protected areas. Protected areas cover only 20% of areas of high endemism and 20% of irreplaceable areas. Almost 40% of the 91 ecological systems are in serious need of protection (= < 2% of their ranges protected). CONCLUSIONS: We identify for the first time, areas of high endemic species concentrations and high irreplaceability that have only been roughly indicated in the past at the continental scale. We conclude that new complementary protected areas are needed to safeguard these endemics and ecosystems. An expansion in protected areas will be challenged by geographically isolated micro-endemics, varied endemic patterns among taxa, increasing deforestation, resource extraction, and changes in climate. Relying on pre-existing collections, publically accessible datasets and tools, this working framework is exportable to other regions plagued by incomplete conservation data.

A new species of the Rhinella margaritifera species group (Anura, Bufonidae) from the montane forest of the Selva Central, Peru.

We describe a new species of the bufonid toad genus Rhinella from transition montane forest of the buffer zones of the Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park and the Pui Pui Protected Forest (eastern slopes of Andes, Selva Central, Peru). The new species belongs to the Rhinella margaritifera species group (confirmed by mtDNA data) and differs from all its members by the absence of tympanic membrane and tympanic annulus. It is characterized by medium size (SVL 57.5-65.5 mm, n = 5), moderately developed cranial crests, absence of neural crest of vertebrae, absence of bone protrusion at angle of jaw, presence of lateral rows of enlarged tubercles, and absence of subgular vocal sac and vocal slits in males. In addition, based on the molecular phylogenetic analyses of selected Rhinella species we propose the monophylum containing R. chavin, R. festae, R. macrorhina, R. manu, R. nesiotes, R. rostrata, and R. yanachaga as a new species group under the name Rhinella festae species group.

ResumenSe describe una nueva especie de sapo Bufonidae del género Rhinella presente en los bosques montanos transicionales de la zona de amortiguamiento del Parque Nacional Yanachaga Chemillén y el Bosque de Protección Pui Pui (Vertiente Oriental de los Andes, Selva Central, Perú). La nueva especie pertenece al grupo de especies Rhinella margaritifera (confirmado con datos de DNAmt) y difiere de todos sus miembros por la ausencia de membrana timpánica y anillo timpánico. Se caracteriza por su tamaño mediano (SVL 57.5­65.5 mm), crestas craneales moderadamente desarrolladas, ausencia de una cresta neural, ausencia de protuberancia ósea en el ángulo mandibular, presencia de filas laterales de tubérculos agrandados, y ausencia de saco vocal subgular y hendiduras vocales en los machos. Además, basado en los análisis filogenéticos moleculares de especies seleccionadas de Rhinella se propone la monofilia que contiene a R. chavin, R. festae, R. macrorhina, R. manu, R. nesiotes, R. rostrata y R. yanachaga como un nuevo grupo de especies bajo el nombre de grupo de especies Rhinella festae.

Divergencia genética en poblaciones peruanas detectada a partir de las frecuencias haplotípicas del mtDNA y del gen nuclear MBL / Peruvian population's genetic differences detected by both mtDNA and MBL nuclear gene haplotypical frequencies

Objetivos: Avanzar en el conocimiento del origen de las poblaciones peruanas estudiadas en un contexto filogeográfico. Diseño: Estudio genético poblacional. Instituciones: Laboratorio de Genética Humana, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, e Instituto de Genética y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Martín de Porras, Lima, Perú. Participantes: Siete poblaciones peruanas. Metodología: Análisis comparativo de los resultados a partir del estudio del mtDNA y el gen nuclear MBL de siete poblaciones peruanas, procesados de manera separada y luego combinados, utilizando el programa PHYLYP 3.65, para obtener valores FST de diferenciación genética y la construcción de árboles de distancias por aplicación del algorritmo UPGMA y el análisis subsecuente de los agrupamientos (clusters) generados. Principales medidas de resultados: Árboles genéticos generados. Resultados: De manera separada, los árboles generados para cada marcador genético tuvieron topologías propias y diferentes entre sí. Procesados de manera combinada, el árbol resultante demostró que los mayores valores de diferenciación genética se hallaron en las Islas del Lago Titicaca (Puno, Perú) conocidas -Taquile, Amantani y Anapia-, que fue calificada como muy alta, porque mostró valores de FST de 0.3113, 0.2949 y 0.3348 respecto de las poblaciones estudiadas, tanto fuera del Departamento de Puno -como Chachapoyas, Pucallpa y Chiclayo, respectivamente-, así como a la de los Uro del mismo Puno y del mismo Lago Titicaca (0.2837). Fuera de Puno, el par de poblaciones Chachapoyas-Pucallpa fue el menos divergente, al alcanzar entre ellas un valor de FST de 0.0108, calificándosele de pequeña. Conclusiones: El árbol obtenido del procesamiento de los marcadores vía una matriz combinada demostró que las poblaciones que habitan las islas de Taquile, Amantani y Anapia, divergen notablemente de las restantes cuatro procesadas del Perú, incluyendo la más próxima a ellas dentro del mismo Lago Titicaca, como es la de los Uro. Explicar estos hallazgos será el siguiente objetivo de nuestras investigaciones, en principio, mediante la ampliación de los marcadores genéticos empleados y del número de poblaciones analizadas a nivel del Perú.

Objectives: To advance in the knowledge of Peruvian populationsÆ origin in a phylogeographical context. Design: Population genetics study. Setting: Human Genetics Laboratory, Biological Sciences Faculty, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, and Genetics and Molecular Biology Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad San Martin de Porras, Lima, Peru. Participants: Seven Peruvian populations. Methods: Comparative analysis of mtDNA and MBL nuclear gene study results in seven Peruvian populations processed separately and then combined using PHYLYP 3.65 Program in order to obtain FST values of genetic differentiation; construction of distance trees by applying UPGMA algorithm and subsequent generated clustersÆ analysis. Main outcome measures: Genetic trees. Results: Trees generated for each genetic marker had proper and distinct topologies among them. Combined processing resulted in a tree with higher values of genetic differentiation in Lago Titicaca Islands (Puno, Peru) Taquile, Amantani y Anapia, graded as very high because they showed 0.3113, 0.2949 y 0.3348 FST values with respect to the populations studied outside of Puno Department -like Chachapoyas, Pucallpa and Chiclayo-, as well as those of both UroÆs in same Puno and Lago TiticacaÆs populations (0.2837). Out of Puno, the pair Chachapoyas-Pucallpa population was the least divergent with 0.0108 FST value between them, classifying as small. Conclusions: The tree obtained from markers by a combined matrix process determined that populations inhabiting in Taquile, Amantani y Anapia islands possess notable genetic divergence respect to the four remainders studied in Peru, including the UroÆs population geographically very close to them and within the same Lago Titicaca. Our next objective will be to explain these findings initially by increasing genetic markers and number of populations analyzed in Peru.