Corrigendum: Commensal bacteria make GPCR ligands that mimic human signalling molecules.

This corrects the article DOI: 10.1038/nature23874.

Commensal bacteria make GPCR ligands that mimic human signalling molecules.

Commensal bacteria are believed to have important roles in human health. The mechanisms by which they affect mammalian physiology remain poorly understood, but bacterial metabolites are likely to be key components of host interactions. Here we use bioinformatics and synthetic biology to mine the human microbiota for N-acyl amides that interact with G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). We found that N-acyl amide synthase genes are enriched in gastrointestinal bacteria and the lipids that they encode interact with GPCRs that regulate gastrointestinal tract physiology. Mouse and cell-based models demonstrate that commensal GPR119 agonists regulate metabolic hormones and glucose homeostasis as efficiently as human ligands, although future studies are needed to define their potential physiological role in humans. Our results suggest that chemical mimicry of eukaryotic signalling molecules may be common among commensal bacteria and that manipulation of microbiota genes encoding metabolites that elicit host cellular responses represents a possible small-molecule therapeutic modality (microbiome-biosynthetic gene therapy).

Urban park soil microbiomes are a rich reservoir of natural product biosynthetic diversity.

Numerous therapeutically relevant small molecules have been identified from the screening of natural products (NPs) produced by environmental bacteria. These discovery efforts have principally focused on culturing bacteria from natural environments rich in biodiversity. We sought to assess the biosynthetic capacity of urban soil environments using a phylogenetic analysis of conserved NP biosynthetic genes amplified directly from DNA isolated from New York City park soils. By sequencing genes involved in the biosynthesis of nonribosomal peptides and polyketides, we found that urban park soil microbiomes are both rich in biosynthetic diversity and distinct from nonurban samples in their biosynthetic gene composition. A comparison of sequences derived from New York City parks to genes involved in the biosynthesis of biomedically important NPs produced by bacteria originally collected from natural environments around the world suggests that bacteria producing these same families of clinically important antibiotics, antifungals, and anticancer agents are actually present in the soils of New York City. The identification of new bacterial NPs often centers on the systematic exploration of bacteria present in natural environments. Here, we find that the soil microbiomes found in large cities likely hold similar promise as rich unexplored sources of clinically relevant NPs.

Multiplexed metagenome mining using short DNA sequence tags facilitates targeted discovery of epoxyketone proteasome inhibitors.

In molecular evolutionary analyses, short DNA sequences are used to infer phylogenetic relationships among species. Here we apply this principle to the study of bacterial biosynthesis, enabling the targeted isolation of previously unidentified natural products directly from complex metagenomes. Our approach uses short natural product sequence tags derived from conserved biosynthetic motifs to profile biosynthetic diversity in the environment and then guide the recovery of gene clusters from metagenomic libraries. The methodology is conceptually simple, requires only a small investment in sequencing, and is not computationally demanding. To demonstrate the power of this approach to natural product discovery we conducted a computational search for epoxyketone proteasome inhibitors within 185 globally distributed soil metagenomes. This led to the identification of 99 unique epoxyketone sequence tags, falling into 6 phylogenetically distinct clades. Complete gene clusters associated with nine unique tags were recovered from four saturating soil metagenomic libraries. Using heterologous expression methodologies, seven potent epoxyketone proteasome inhibitors (clarepoxcins A-E and landepoxcins A and B) were produced from these pathways, including compounds with different warhead structures and a naturally occurring halohydrin prodrug. This study provides a template for the targeted expansion of bacterially derived natural products using the global metagenome.

Mapping gene clusters within arrayed metagenomic libraries to expand the structural diversity of biomedically relevant natural products.

Complex microbial ecosystems contain large reservoirs of unexplored biosynthetic diversity. Here we provide an experimental framework and data analysis tool to facilitate the targeted discovery of natural-product biosynthetic gene clusters from the environment. Multiplex sequencing of barcoded PCR amplicons is followed by sequence similarity directed data parsing to identify sequences bearing close resemblance to biosynthetically or biomedically interesting gene clusters. Amplicons are then mapped onto arrayed metagenomic libraries to guide the recovery of targeted gene clusters. When applied to adenylation- and ketosynthase-domain amplicons derived from saturating soil DNA libraries, our analysis pipeline led to the recovery of biosynthetic clusters predicted to encode for previously uncharacterized glycopeptide- and lipopeptide-like antibiotics; thiocoraline-, azinomycin-, and bleomycin-like antitumor agents; and a rapamycin-like immunosuppressant. The utility of the approach is demonstrated by using recovered eDNA sequences to generate glycopeptide derivatives. The experiments described here constitute a systematic interrogation of a soil metagenome for gene clusters capable of encoding naturally occurring derivatives of biomedically relevant natural products. Our results show that previously undetected biosynthetic gene clusters with potential biomedical relevance are very common in the environment. This general process should permit the routine screening of environmental samples for gene clusters capable of encoding the systematic expansion of the structural diversity seen in biomedically relevant families of natural products.

Targeted metagenomics: finding rare tryptophan dimer natural products in the environment.

Natural product discovery from environmental genomes (metagenomics) has largely been limited to the screening of existing environmental DNA (eDNA) libraries. Here, we have coupled a chemical-biogeographic survey of chromopyrrolic acid synthase (CPAS) gene diversity with targeted eDNA library production to more efficiently access rare tryptophan dimer (TD) biosynthetic gene clusters. A combination of traditional and synthetic biology-based heterologous expression efforts using eDNA-derived gene clusters led to the production of hydroxysporine (1) and reductasporine (2), two bioactive TDs. As suggested by our phylogenetic analysis of CPAS genes, identified in our survey of crude eDNA extracts, reductasporine (2) contains an unprecedented TD core structure: a pyrrolinium indolocarbazole core that is likely key to its unusual bioactivity profile. This work demonstrates the potential for the discovery of structurally rare and biologically interesting natural products using targeted metagenomics, where environmental samples are prescreened to identify the most phylogenetically unique gene sequences and molecules associated with these genes are accessed through targeted metagenomic library construction and heterologous expression.

Discovery and synthetic refactoring of tryptophan dimer gene clusters from the environment.

Here we investigate bacterial tryptophan dimer (TD) biosynthesis by probing environmental DNA (eDNA) libraries for chromopyrrolic acid (CPA) synthase genes. Functional and bioinformatics analyses of TD clusters indicate that CPA synthase gene sequences diverge in concert with the functional output of their respective clusters, making this gene a powerful tool for guiding the discovery of novel TDs from the environment. Twelve unprecedented TD biosynthetic gene clusters that can be arranged into five groups (A-E) based on their ability to generate distinct TD core substructures were recovered from eDNA libraries. Four of these groups contain clusters from both cultured and culture independent studies, while the remaining group consists entirely of eDNA-derived clusters. The complete synthetic refactoring of a representative gene cluster from the latter eDNA specific group led to the characterization of the erdasporines, cytotoxins with a novel carboxy-indolocarbazole TD substructure. Analysis of CPA synthase genes in crude eDNA suggests the presence of additional TD gene clusters in soil environments.

Tailoring enzyme-rich environmental DNA clones: a source of enzymes for generating libraries of unnatural natural products.

A detailed bioinformatics analysis of six glycopeptide biosynthetic gene clusters isolated from soil environmental DNA (eDNA) megalibraries indicates that a subset of these gene clusters contains collections of tailoring enzymes that are predicted to result in the production of new glycopeptide congeners. In particular, sulfotransferases appear in eDNA-derived gene clusters at a much higher frequency than would be predicted from the characterization of glycopeptides from cultured Actinomycetes . Enzymes found on tailoring-enzyme-rich eDNA clones associated with these six gene clusters were used to produce a series of new sulfated glycopeptide derivatives in both in vitro and in vivo derivatization studies. The derivatization of known natural products with eDNA-derived tailoring enzymes is likely to be a broadly applicable strategy for generating libraries of new natural product variants.

Uncovering the biosynthetic potential of rare metagenomic DNA using co-occurrence network analysis of targeted sequences.

Sequencing of DNA extracted from environmental samples can provide key insights into the biosynthetic potential of uncultured bacteria. However, the high complexity of soil metagenomes, which can contain thousands of bacterial species per gram of soil, imposes significant challenges to explore secondary metabolites potentially produced by rare members of the soil microbiome. Here, we develop a targeted sequencing workflow termed CONKAT-seq (co-occurrence network analysis of targeted sequences) that detects physically clustered biosynthetic domains, a hallmark of bacterial secondary metabolism. Following targeted amplification of conserved biosynthetic domains in a highly partitioned metagenomic library, CONKAT-seq evaluates amplicon co-occurrence patterns across library subpools to identify chromosomally clustered domains. We show that a single soil sample can contain more than a thousand uncharacterized biosynthetic gene clusters, most of which originate from low frequency genomes which are practically inaccessible through untargeted sequencing. CONKAT-seq allows scalable exploration of largely untapped biosynthetic diversity across multiple soils, and can guide the discovery of novel secondary metabolites from rare members of the soil microbiome.

Rifamycin congeners kanglemycins are active against rifampicin-resistant bacteria via a distinct mechanism.

Rifamycin antibiotics (Rifs) target bacterial RNA polymerases (RNAPs) and are widely used to treat infections including tuberculosis. The utility of these compounds is threatened by the increasing incidence of resistance (RifR). As resistance mechanisms found in clinical settings may also occur in natural environments, here we postulated that bacteria could have evolved to produce rifamycin congeners active against clinically relevant resistance phenotypes. We survey soil metagenomes and identify a tailoring enzyme-rich family of gene clusters encoding biosynthesis of rifamycin congeners (kanglemycins, Kangs) with potent in vivo and in vitro activity against the most common clinically relevant RifR mutations. Our structural and mechanistic analyses reveal the basis for Kang inhibition of RifR RNAP. Unlike Rifs, Kangs function through a mechanism that includes interfering with 5'-initiating substrate binding. Our results suggest that examining soil microbiomes for new analogues of clinically used antibiotics may uncover metabolites capable of circumventing clinically important resistance mechanisms.

Cloning large natural product gene clusters from the environment: piecing environmental DNA gene clusters back together with TAR.

A single gram of soil can contain thousands of unique bacterial species, of which only a small fraction is regularly cultured in the laboratory. Although the fermentation of cultured microorganisms has provided access to numerous bioactive secondary metabolites, with these same methods it is not possible to characterize the natural products encoded by the uncultured majority. The heterologous expression of biosynthetic gene clusters cloned from DNA extracted directly from environmental samples (eDNA) has the potential to provide access to the chemical diversity encoded in the genomes of uncultured bacteria. One of the challenges facing this approach has been that many natural product biosynthetic gene clusters are too large to be readily captured on a single fragment of cloned eDNA. The reassembly of large eDNA-derived natural product gene clusters from collections of smaller overlapping clones represents one potential solution to this problem. Unfortunately, traditional methods for the assembly of large DNA sequences from multiple overlapping clones can be technically challenging. Here we present a general experimental framework that permits the recovery of large natural product biosynthetic gene clusters on overlapping soil-derived eDNA cosmid clones and the reassembly of these large gene clusters using transformation-associated recombination (TAR) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The development of practical methods for the rapid assembly of biosynthetic gene clusters from collections of overlapping eDNA clones is an important step toward being able to functionally study larger natural product gene clusters from uncultured bacteria.