Targeting a cryptic allosteric site for selective inhibition of the oncogenic protein tyrosine phosphatase Shp2.

Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) have been the subject of considerable pharmaceutical-design efforts because of the ubiquitous connections between misregulation of PTP activity and human disease. PTP-inhibitor discovery has been hampered, however, by the difficulty in identifying cell-permeable compounds that can selectively target PTP active sites, and no PTP inhibitors have progressed to the clinic. The identification of allosteric sites on target PTPs therefore represents a potentially attractive solution to the druggability problem of PTPs. Here we report that the oncogenic PTP Shp2 contains an allosteric-inhibition site that renders the enzyme sensitive to potent and selective inhibition by cell-permeable biarsenical compounds. Because Shp2 contains no canonical tetracysteine biarsenical-binding motif, the enzyme's inhibitor-binding site is not readily predictable from its primary or three-dimensional structure. Intriguingly, however, Shp2's PTP domain does contain a cysteine residue (C333) at a position that is removed from the active site and is occupied by proline in other classical PTPs. We show that Shp2's unusual cysteine residue constitutes part of a Shp2-specific allosteric-inhibition site, and that Shp2's sensitivity to biarsenicals is dependent on the presence of the naturally occurring C333. The determinative role of this residue in conferring inhibitor sensitivity is surprising because C333's side chain is inaccessible to solvent in Shp2 crystal structures. The discovery of this cryptic Shp2 allosteric site may provide a means for targeting Shp2 activity with high specificity and suggests that buried-yet-targetable allosteric sites could be similarly uncovered in other protein families.

Direct Chemical Activation of a Rationally Engineered Signaling Enzyme.

Few chemical strategies for activating enzymes have been developed. Here we show that a biarsenical compound (FlAsH) can directly activate a rationally engineered protein tyrosine phosphatase (Shp2 PTP) by disrupting autoinhibitory interactions between Shp2's N-terminal SH2 domain and its PTP domain. We found that introducing a tricysteine motif at a loop of Shp2's N-SH2 domain confers affinity for FlAsH; binding of FlAsH to the cysteine-enriched loop relieves Shp2's inhibitory interdomain interaction and substantially increases the enzyme's PTP activity. Activation of engineered Shp2 is substrate independent and is observed in the contexts of both purified enzyme and complex proteomes. A chemical means for activating Shp2 could be useful for investigating its roles in signaling and oncogenesis, and the loop-targeting strategy described herein could provide a blueprint for the development of target-specific activators of other autoinhibited enzymes.

Rational design of allosteric-inhibition sites in classical protein tyrosine phosphatases.

Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), which catalyze the dephosphorylation of phosphotyrosine in protein substrates, are critical regulators of metazoan cell signaling and have emerged as potential drug targets for a range of human diseases. Strategies for chemically targeting the function of individual PTPs selectively could serve to elucidate the signaling roles of these enzymes and would potentially expedite validation of the therapeutic promise of PTP inhibitors. Here we report a novel strategy for the design of non-natural allosteric-inhibition sites in PTPs; these sites, which can be introduced into target PTPs through protein engineering, serve to sensitize target PTPs to potent and selective inhibition by a biarsenical small molecule. Building on the recent discovery of a naturally occurring cryptic allosteric site in wild-type Src-homology-2 domain containing PTP (Shp2) that can be targeted by biarsenical compounds, we hypothesized that Shp2's unusual sensitivity to biarsenicals could be strengthened through rational design and that the Shp2-specific site could serve as a blueprint for the introduction of non-natural inhibitor sensitivity in other PTPs. Indeed, we show here that the strategic introduction of a cysteine residue at a position removed from the Shp2 active site can serve to increase the potency and selectivity of the interaction between Shp2's allosteric site and the biarsenical inhibitor. Moreover, we find that 'Shp2-like' allosteric sites can be installed de novo in PTP enzymes that do not possess naturally occurring sensitivity to biarsenical compounds. Using primary-sequence alignments to guide our enzyme engineering, we have successfully introduced allosteric-inhibition sites in four classical PTPs-PTP1B, PTPH-1, FAP-1, and HePTP-from four different PTP subfamilies, suggesting that our sensitization approach can likely be applied widely across the classical PTP family to generate biarsenical-responsive PTPs.

An ultra-potent synthetic nanobody neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 by locking Spike into an inactive conformation.

Without an effective prophylactic solution, infections from SARS-CoV-2 continue to rise worldwide with devastating health and economic costs. SARS-CoV-2 gains entry into host cells via an interaction between its Spike protein and the host cell receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Disruption of this interaction confers potent neutralization of viral entry, providing an avenue for vaccine design and for therapeutic antibodies. Here, we develop single-domain antibodies (nanobodies) that potently disrupt the interaction between the SARS-CoV-2 Spike and ACE2. By screening a yeast surface-displayed library of synthetic nanobody sequences, we identified a panel of nanobodies that bind to multiple epitopes on Spike and block ACE2 interaction via two distinct mechanisms. Cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) revealed that one exceptionally stable nanobody, Nb6, binds Spike in a fully inactive conformation with its receptor binding domains (RBDs) locked into their inaccessible down-state, incapable of binding ACE2. Affinity maturation and structure-guided design of multivalency yielded a trivalent nanobody, mNb6-tri, with femtomolar affinity for SARS-CoV-2 Spike and picomolar neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 infection. mNb6-tri retains stability and function after aerosolization, lyophilization, and heat treatment. These properties may enable aerosol-mediated delivery of this potent neutralizer directly to the airway epithelia, promising to yield a widely deployable, patient-friendly prophylactic and/or early infection therapeutic agent to stem the worst pandemic in a century.

An ultrapotent synthetic nanobody neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 by stabilizing inactive Spike.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus enters host cells via an interaction between its Spike protein and the host cell receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). By screening a yeast surface-displayed library of synthetic nanobody sequences, we developed nanobodies that disrupt the interaction between Spike and ACE2. Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) revealed that one nanobody, Nb6, binds Spike in a fully inactive conformation with its receptor binding domains locked into their inaccessible down state, incapable of binding ACE2. Affinity maturation and structure-guided design of multivalency yielded a trivalent nanobody, mNb6-tri, with femtomolar affinity for Spike and picomolar neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 infection. mNb6-tri retains function after aerosolization, lyophilization, and heat treatment, which enables aerosol-mediated delivery of this potent neutralizer directly to the airway epithelia.

Histone H3 binding to the PHD1 domain of histone demethylase KDM5A enables active site remodeling.

Histone demethylase KDM5A removes methyl marks from lysine 4 of histone H3 and is often overexpressed in cancer. The in vitro demethylase activity of KDM5A is allosterically enhanced by binding of its product, unmodified H3 peptides, to its PHD1 reader domain. However, the molecular basis of this allosteric enhancement is unclear. Here we show that saturation of the PHD1 domain by the H3 N-terminal tail peptides stabilizes binding of the substrate to the catalytic domain and improves the catalytic efficiency of demethylation. When present in saturating concentrations, differently modified H3 N-terminal tail peptides have a similar effect on demethylation. However, they vary greatly in their affinity towards the PHD1 domain, suggesting that H3 modifications can tune KDM5A activity. Furthermore, hydrogen/deuterium exchange coupled with mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) experiments reveal conformational changes in the allosterically enhanced state. Our findings may enable future development of anti-cancer therapies targeting regions involved in allosteric regulation.

Extending chemical perturbations of the ubiquitin fitness landscape in a classroom setting reveals new constraints on sequence tolerance.

Although the primary protein sequence of ubiquitin (Ub) is extremely stable over evolutionary time, it is highly tolerant to mutation during selection experiments performed in the laboratory. We have proposed that this discrepancy results from the difference between fitness under laboratory culture conditions and the selective pressures in changing environments over evolutionary timescales. Building on our previous work (Mavor et al., 2016), we used deep mutational scanning to determine how twelve new chemicals (3-Amino-1,2,4-triazole, 5-fluorocytosine, Amphotericin B, CaCl2, Cerulenin, Cobalt Acetate, Menadione, Nickel Chloride, p-Fluorophenylalanine, Rapamycin, Tamoxifen, and Tunicamycin) reveal novel mutational sensitivities of ubiquitin residues. Collectively, our experiments have identified eight new sensitizing conditions for Lys63 and uncovered a sensitizing condition for every position in Ub except Ser57 and Gln62. By determining the ubiquitin fitness landscape under different chemical constraints, our work helps to resolve the inconsistencies between deep mutational scanning experiments and sequence conservation over evolutionary timescales.