The neighbourhood built environment and health-related fitness: a narrative systematic review.

BACKGROUND: There is increasing evidence demonstrating the importance of the neighbourhood built environment in supporting physical activity. Physical activity provides numerous health benefits including improvements in health-related fitness (i.e., muscular, cardiorespiratory, motor, and morphological fitness). Emerging evidence also suggests that the neighbourhood built environment is associated with health-related fitness. Our aim was to summarize evidence on the associations between the neighbourhood built environment and components of health-related fitness in adults. METHODS: We undertook a systematic review following PRISMA guidelines. Our data sources included electronic searches in MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Environment Complete, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, and Transport Research International Documentation from inception to March 2021. Our eligibility criteria consisted of observational and experimental studies estimating associations between the neighbourhood built environment and health-related fitness among healthy adults (age ≥ 18 years). Eligible studies included objective or self-reported measures of the neighbourhood built environment and included either objective or self-reported measures of health-related fitness. Data extraction included study design, sample characteristics, measured neighbourhood built environment characteristics, and measured components of health-related fitness. We used individual Joanna Briggs Institute study checklists based on identified study designs. Our primary outcome measure was components of health-related fitness (muscular; cardiorespiratory; motor, and morphological fitness). RESULTS: Twenty-seven studies (sample sizes = 28 to 419,562; 2002 to 2020) met the eligibility criteria. Neighbourhood destinations were the most consistent built environment correlate across all components of health-related fitness. The greatest number of significant associations was found between the neighbourhood built environment and morphological fitness while the lowest number of associations was found for motor fitness. The neighbourhood built environment was consistently associated with health-related fitness in studies that adjusted for physical activity. CONCLUSION: The neighbourhood built environment is associated with health-related fitness in adults and these associations may be independent of physical activity. Longitudinal studies that adjust for physical activity (including resistance training) and sedentary behaviour, and residential self-selection are needed to obtain rigorous causal evidence for the link between the neighbourhood built environment and health-related fitness. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Protocol registration: PROSPERO number CRD42020179807.

Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between the built environment and walking: effect modification by socioeconomic status.

BACKGROUND: Although socioeconomic status (SES) has been shown to modify associations between the neighborhood built environment and physical activity, contradictory results exist. Objectives of this cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis were to: 1) examine whether overall neighborhood walkability and specific built characteristics were associated with walking among adults at a single point in time and after they relocate neighborhoods, and 2) test for effect modification of these associations by SES. METHODS: We linked longitudinal data from 703 adults who relocated urban neighborhoods between two waves of Alberta's Tomorrow Project (2008-2015) to neighborhood built environment data. We created a walkability index from measures of population counts, street connectivity, and destination diversity within 400 m of participants' homes. In cross-sectional analyses, we used generalized linear models to estimate associations between built characteristics and minutes walked per week at baseline. For the longitudinal analyses, we used fixed-effects linear regression models to estimate associations between changes in built characteristics and minutes walked per week. We also assessed if indicators of SES (individual education or household income) modified both sets of associations. RESULTS: Most cross-sectional and longitudinal associations were small and statistically non-significant. Neighborhood population count (b = 0.03, 95% CI: 0.01, 0.07) and street connectivity (b = - 1.75, 95% CI: - 3.26, - 0.24) were cross-sectionally associated with walking duration among the overall sample. None of the longitudinal associations were statistically significant among the overall sample. There was limited evidence of effect modification by SES, however, we found negative cross-sectional associations between street connectivity and walking among adults with lower education and income, and a positive association between percent change in walkability and change in walking among lower educated adults. CONCLUSIONS: Despite population count and street connectivity being associated with walking at baseline, changes in these built environment variables were not associated with changes in walking following residential relocation. Our findings also provide evidence, albeit weak, that changes in neighborhood walkability, resulting from residential relocation, might more strongly affect walking among low SES adults. Further longitudinal research is needed to examine built environment characteristics with walking for different purposes and to test for inequitable socioeconomic impacts.

Vegetarian or meat? Food choice modeling of main dishes occurs outside of awareness.

It is well established that the amount eaten by other people affects how much we eat, but unanswered questions exist regarding how much the food choices of other people affect the types of food that we choose. Past research on food choice modeling has primarily been conducted in controlled laboratory situations and has focused on snack foods. The current research examines the extent to which food choice modeling of a main dish occurs in a real-life context and whether people are aware of being influenced by others. The lunch orders of café patrons were surreptitiously tracked and participants were recruited after they paid for their lunch. Participants were asked what they ordered, whether they were influenced by the prior order, and what their relationship was to the person ahead of them in line. We analyzed the data of participants who were not acquainted with the person ahead of them (N = 174). As hypothesized, participants' main-dish lunch orders matched the choice of the person ordering ahead of them in line at rates significantly higher than chance. A significant modeling effect was observed even among participants who reported that their order was not influenced by the prior order. This research provided evidence of main-dish choice modeling occurring in real-life eating situations and outside of conscious awareness - demonstrating a powerful social influence on eating behaviours.

Are sentiments subject to selection pressures? The case of oxytocin.

We argue that natural selection operates on emotional and cognitive capacities supporting the subjective experience of sentiments, rather than on discrete sentiments themselves. We support this argument by examining the case of oxytocin in relation to the sentiment of love. We also explore future directions for health psychology research that includes "cold" aspects of contempt in conjunction with "hot" aspects.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the rate of primary care visits for substance use among patients in Ontario, Canada.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in the prevalence of substance use presentations. This study aims to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the rate of primary care visits for substance use including tobacco, alcohol, and other drug use among primary care patients in Ontario, Canada. Diagnostic and service fee code data were collected from a longitudinal cohort of family medicine patients during pre-pandemic (March 14, 2019-March 13, 2020) and pandemic periods (March 14, 2020-March 13, 2021). Generalized linear models were used to compare the rate of substance-use related visits pre-pandemic and during the pandemic. The effects of demographic characteristics including age, sex, and income quintile were also assessed. Relative to the pre-pandemic period, patients were less likely to have a primary care visit during the pandemic for tobacco-use related reasons (OR = 0.288, 95% CI [0.270-0.308]), and for alcohol-use related reasons (OR = 0.851, 95% CI [0.780-0.929]). In contrast, patients were more likely to have a primary care visit for other drug-use related reasons (OR = 1.150, 95% CI [1.080-1.225]). In the face of a known increase in substance use during the COVID-19 pandemic, a decrease in substance use-related primary care visits likely represents an unmet need for this patient population. This study highlights the importance of continued research in the field of substance use, especially in periods of heightened vulnerability such as during the COVID-19 pandemic.

An ecological analysis of walkability and housing affordability in Canada: Moderation by city size and neighbourhood property type composition.

The neighbourhood built environment can support the physical activity of adults regardless of their individual-level socioeconomic status. However, physical activity supportive (walkable) neighbourhoods may not be accessible to those with lower incomes if homes in walkable neighbourhoods are too expensive. The objectives of this study were: 1) to estimate the associations between neighbourhood walkability and home values in Canadian cities, and 2) to test whether these associations differ by city size and residential property type composition within neighbourhoods. We linked built environment data from the 2016 Canadian Active Living Environments (Can-ALE) index with neighbourhood-level structural home characteristics and sociodemographic data from the 2016 Canadian census for 33,026 neighbourhoods across 31 Census Metropolitan Areas. We used multilevel linear regression models to estimate covariate-adjusted associations between neighbourhood walkability and natural-log median home values and tested city size and neighbourhood property type composition as moderators. There were no statistically significant associations between walkability and home values overall. The associations between neighbourhood walkability and home values were jointly moderated by city size and property type composition. For small and medium sized cities, within neighbourhoods containing a high proportion of detached homes, walkability was negatively associated with home values (b = -0.05, 95% CI: -0.10, -0.01; and, b = -0.04, 95% CI: -0.06, -0.02, for small and medium cities, respectively). However, for extra-large cities, within neighbourhoods containing a high proportion of detached homes, walkability was positively associated with home values (b = 0.06, 95% CI: 0.01, 0.10). Our findings suggest that, based on housing affordability, higher walkable neighbourhoods are likely accessible to lower income households that are situated in small and medium Canadian cities. In larger cities, however, municipal interventions (e.g., inclusionary zoning or targeted development of subsidized or social housing) may be needed to ensure equitable access to walkable neighbourhoods for lower income households.

Multimorbidity and Blood Pressure Control in Patients Attending Primary Care in Canada.

BACKGROUND: There has been conflicting evidence on the association between multimorbidity and blood pressure (BP) control. This study aimed to investigate this associations in people with hypertension attending primary care in Canada, and to assess whether individual long-term conditions are associated with BP control. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study in people with hypertension attending primary care in Toronto between January 1, 2017 and December 31, 2019. Uncontrolled BP was defined as systolic BP ≥ 140 mmHg or diastolic BP ≥ 90 mmHg. A list of 11 a priori selected chronic conditions was used to define multimorbidity. Multimorbidity was defined as having ≥1 long-term condition in addition to hypertension. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the association between multimorbidity (or individual long-term conditions) with uncontrolled BP. RESULTS: A total of 67 385 patients with hypertension were included. They had a mean age of 70, 53.1% were female, 80.6% had multimorbidity, and 35.7% had uncontrolled BP. Patients with multimorbidity had lower odds of uncontrolled BP than those without multimorbidity (adjusted OR = 0.72, 95% CI 0.68-0.76). Among the long-term conditions, diabetes (aOR = 0.73, 95%CI 0.70-0.77), heart failure (aOR = 0.81, 95%CI 0.73-0.91), ischemic heart disease (aOR = 0.74, 95%CI 0.69-0.79), schizophrenia (aOR = 0.79, 95%CI 0.65-0.97), depression/anxiety (aOR = 0.91, 95%CI 0.86-0.95), dementia (aOR = 0.87, 95%CI 0.80-0.95), and osteoarthritis (aOR = 0.89, 95%CI 0.85-0.93) were associated with a lower likelihood of uncontrolled BP. CONCLUSION: We found that multimorbidity was associated with better BP control. Several conditions were associated with better control, including diabetes, heart failure, ischemic heart disease, schizophrenia, depression/anxiety, dementia, and osteoarthritis.

Social integration after moving to a new city predicts lower systolic blood pressure.

Residential mobility is linked to higher incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and mortality. A mechanism by which residential relocation may impact health is through the disruption of social networks. To examine whether moving to a new city is associated with increased CVD risk and whether the extent to which movers rebuild their social network after relocating predicts improved CVD risk and psychosocial well-being, recent movers (n = 26), and age- and sex-matched nonmovers (n = 20) were followed over 3 months. Blood pressure, C-reactive protein/albumin ratio (CRP/ALB), social network size, and psychosocial well-being were measured at intake (within 6 weeks of residential relocation for movers) and 3 months later. Multiple regression indicated higher systolic blood pressure (SBP) for movers (M = 107.42, SD = 11.39), compared with nonmovers (M = 102.37, SD = 10.03) at intake, though this trend was not statistically significant. As predicted, increases in movers' social network size over 3 months predicted decreases in SBP, even after controlling for age, sex, and waist-to-hip ratio, b = -2.04 mmHg, 95% CI [-3.35, -.73]. Associations between increases in movers' social ties and decreases in depressive symptoms and stress were in the predicted direction but did not meet the traditional cutoff for statistical significance. Residential relocation and movers' social network size were not associated with CRP/ALB in this healthy sample. This study provides preliminary evidence for increased SBP among recent movers; furthermore, it suggests that this elevation in CVD risk may decrease as individuals successfully rebuild their social network.

Associations between the built environment and physical activity among adults with low socio-economic status in Canada: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To synthesize literature on the associations between the built environment and physical activity among adults with low socio-economic status (SES) in Canada. METHODS: Using a pre-specified study protocol (PROSPERO ID: CRD42019117894), we searched seven databases from inception to November 2018, for peer-reviewed quantitative studies that (1) included adults with low SES living in Canada and (2) estimated the association between self-reported or objectively measured built characteristics and self-reported or objectively measured physical activity. Study quality was assessed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies. Findings were synthesized using a narrative approach. SYNTHESIS: Of the 8338 citations identified by our search, seven studies met the inclusion criteria. Most studies included adults living in one province (Alberta, British Columbia, Ontario, or Quebec), with one study including a national sample. All studies were cross-sectional, and none controlled for residential self-selection. Sampling designs and data collection strategies were heterogeneous. Sample sizes ranged between 78 and 37,241 participants. Most studies measured SES using household income. Street connectivity, greenness, destination density, and walkability were positively associated with physical activity. Relative to the objectively measured built environment, associations between the self-reported built environment and physical activity were less consistent. Studies were of fair to good quality. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that the neighbourhood built environment is associated with physical activity among adults with low SES in Canada. More rigorous study designs are needed to determine whether or not the built environment and physical activity are causally related within this vulnerable population.

RéSUMé: OBJECTIF: Faire une synthèse de la littérature scientifique sur les associations entre l'environnement bâti et l'activité physique chez les adultes de faible statut socioéconomique (SSE) au Canada. MéTHODE: À l'aide d'un protocole d'étude préétabli (numéro d'identification PROSPERO : CRD42019117894), nous avons interrogé sept bases de données, entre l'inception de chacune et novembre 2018, pour repérer les études quantitatives évaluées par les pairs qui : 1) incluaient des adultes de faible SSE vivant au Canada; et 2) estimaient l'association entre les caractéristiques autodéclarées ou objectivement mesurées de l'environnement bâti et l'activité physique autodéclarée ou objectivement mesurée. La qualité des études a été évaluée à l'aide de l'outil Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies. Nous avons fait la synthèse des constatations selon une démarche narrative. SYNTHèSE: Sur les 8 338 citations repérées dans notre recherche, sept études répondaient aux critères d'inclusion. La plupart incluaient des adultes vivant dans une province (Alberta, Colombie-Britannique, Ontario ou Québec), et une étude comportait un échantillon national. Toutes les études étaient transversales, et aucune ne tenait compte de l'auto-sélection de la résidence. Les modes d'échantillonnage et les stratégies de collecte de données étaient hétérogènes. La taille des échantillons variait de 78 à 37 241 participants. La plupart des études mesuraient le SSE à l'aide du revenu des ménages. La connectivité des rues, la verdure, la densité des destinations et la marchabilité étaient associées positivement à l'activité physique. Par rapport à l'environnement bâti objectivement mesuré, les associations entre l'environnement bâti autodéclaré et l'activité physique étaient moins constantes. La qualité des études était de moyenne à bonne. CONCLUSION: Nos constatations indiquent que l'environnement bâti du quartier est associé à l'activité physique chez les adultes de faible SSE au Canada. Des protocoles d'étude plus rigoureux sont nécessaires pour déterminer s'il existe ou non une relation causale entre l'environnement bâti et l'activité physique dans cette population vulnérable.

From Misperception to Social Connection: Correlates and Consequences of Overestimating Others' Social Connectedness.

Two studies document the existence and correlates of a widespread social belief, wherein individuals who have recently moved to a new social environment see their peers as more socially connected than they themselves are. In Study 1, the prevalence of this belief was documented in a large sample of first-year students ( N = 1,099). In Study 2, the prevalence of this social belief was replicated in a targeted sample of university students ( N = 389). Study 2 also documented both positive and negative implications of this belief. Specifically, at any given time, students who believed that their peers were more socially connected reported lower well-being and belonging. Over time, however, the belief that one's peers are moderately more socially connected than oneself was associated with more friendship formation.