Adjuvanting a subunit COVID-19 vaccine to induce protective immunity.

The development of a portfolio of COVID-19 vaccines to vaccinate the global population remains an urgent public health imperative1. Here we demonstrate the capacity of a subunit vaccine, comprising the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein receptor-binding domain displayed on an I53-50 protein nanoparticle scaffold (hereafter designated RBD-NP), to stimulate robust and durable neutralizing-antibody responses and protection against SARS-CoV-2 in rhesus macaques. We evaluated five adjuvants including Essai O/W 1849101, a squalene-in-water emulsion; AS03, an α-tocopherol-containing oil-in-water emulsion; AS37, a Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) agonist adsorbed to alum; CpG1018-alum, a TLR9 agonist formulated in alum; and alum. RBD-NP immunization with AS03, CpG1018-alum, AS37 or alum induced substantial neutralizing-antibody and CD4 T cell responses, and conferred protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection in the pharynges, nares and bronchoalveolar lavage. The neutralizing-antibody response to live virus was maintained up to 180 days after vaccination with RBD-NP in AS03 (RBD-NP-AS03), and correlated with protection from infection. RBD-NP immunization cross-neutralized the B.1.1.7 SARS-CoV-2 variant efficiently but showed a reduced response against the B.1.351 variant. RBD-NP-AS03 produced a 4.5-fold reduction in neutralization of B.1.351 whereas the group immunized with RBD-NP-AS37 produced a 16-fold reduction in neutralization of B.1.351, suggesting differences in the breadth of the neutralizing-antibody response induced by these adjuvants. Furthermore, RBD-NP-AS03 was as immunogenic as a prefusion-stabilized spike immunogen (HexaPro) with AS03 adjuvant. These data highlight the efficacy of the adjuvanted RBD-NP vaccine in promoting protective immunity against SARS-CoV-2 and have led to phase I/II clinical trials of this vaccine (NCT04742738 and NCT04750343).

OX40 Ligand Contributes to Human Lupus Pathogenesis by Promoting T Follicular Helper Response.

Increased activity of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells plays a major pathogenic role in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). However, the mechanisms that cause aberrant Tfh cell responses in SLE remain elusive. Here we showed the OX40 ligand (OX40L)-OX40 axis contributes to the aberrant Tfh response in SLE. OX40L was expressed by myeloid antigen-presenting cells (APCs), but not B cells, in blood and in inflamed tissues in adult and pediatric SLE patients. The frequency of circulating OX40L-expressing myeloid APCs positively correlated with disease activity and the frequency of ICOS(+) blood Tfh cells in SLE. OX40 signals promoted naive and memory CD4(+) T cells to express multiple Tfh cell molecules and were sufficient to induce them to become functional B cell helpers. Immune complexes containing RNA induced OX40L expression on myeloid APCs via TLR7 activation. Our study provides a rationale to target the OX40L-OX40 axis as a therapeutic modality for SLE.

A Phase 2a, Double-Blind, Placebo-controlled Randomized Trial of Inhaled TLR9 Agonist AZD1419 in Asthma.

Rationale: To examine the potential of TLR9 (Toll-like receptor 9) activation to modulate the type 2 immune response in asthma.Objectives: To evaluate efficacy and safety of AZD1419, an inhaled TLR9 agonist, in a phase 2a, randomized, double-blind trial.Methods: Adult patients with asthma with a history of elevated eosinophils (>250 cells/µl) were randomized 1:1 to receive 13 once-weekly doses of inhaled AZD1419 (1, 4, or 8 mg; n = 40) or placebo (n = 41). Inhaled corticosteroids and long-acting ß2-agonist were tapered down and then discontinued. The last four doses of AZD1419 were given without maintenance medication, followed by a 40-week observation period. Primary endpoint was time to loss of asthma control (LOC).Measurements and Main Results: AZD1419 induced a T-helper cell type 1-type IFN response with a sustained reduction in markers of type 2 inflammation. However, there were no statistically significant differences between AZD1419 and placebo for time to LOC, proportion of patients with LOC, changes in Asthma Control Questionnaire-five-item version, exacerbations, reliever use, FEV1, peak expiratory flow, or fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO). LOC was predicted by an early rise in FeNO in 63% of patients. Despite withdrawal of maintenance treatment, 24 patients completed the study without LOC; AZD1419 n = 11, placebo n = 13. Adverse events were balanced across groups, with no deaths or serious adverse events judged as causally related to AZD1419.Conclusions: AZD1419 was safe and well tolerated but did not lead to improved asthma control, despite reducing markers of type 2 inflammation. Results suggest that a novel accelerated step-down approach based on FeNO is possible for patients with well-controlled asthma.

Selective utilization of Toll-like receptor and MyD88 signaling in B cells for enhancement of the antiviral germinal center response.

The contribution of Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling to T cell-dependent (TD) antibody responses was assessed by using mice lacking the TLR signaling adaptor MyD88 in individual cell types. When a soluble TLR9 ligand was used as adjuvant for a protein antigen, MyD88 was required in dendritic cells but not in B cells to enhance the TD antibody response, regardless of the inherent immunogenicity of the antigen. In contrast, a TLR9 ligand contained within a virus-like particle substantially augmented the TD germinal center IgG antibody response, and this augmentation required B cell MyD88. The ability of B cells to discriminate between antigens based on the physical form of a TLR ligand probably reflects an adaptation to facilitate strong antiviral antibody responses.

Vaccine adjuvants: putting innate immunity to work.

Adjuvants enhance immunity to vaccines and experimental antigens by a variety of mechanisms. In the past decade, many receptors and signaling pathways in the innate immune system have been defined and these innate responses strongly influence the adaptive immune response. The focus of this review is to delineate the innate mechanisms by which adjuvants mediate their effects. We highlight how adjuvants can be used to influence the magnitude and alter the quality of the adaptive response in order to provide maximum protection against specific pathogens. Despite the impressive success of currently approved adjuvants for generating immunity to viral and bacterial infections, there remains a need for improved adjuvants that enhance protective antibody responses, especially in populations that respond poorly to current vaccines. However, the larger challenge is to develop vaccines that generate strong T cell immunity with purified or recombinant vaccine antigens.

Intratumoral injection of a CpG oligonucleotide reverts resistance to PD-1 blockade by expanding multifunctional CD8+ T cells.

Despite the impressive rates of clinical response to programmed death 1 (PD-1) blockade in multiple cancers, the majority of patients still fail to respond to this therapy. The CT26 tumor in mice showed similar heterogeneity, with most tumors unaffected by anti-PD-1. As in humans, response of CT26 to anti-PD-1 correlated with increased T- and B-cell infiltration and IFN expression. We show that intratumoral injection of a highly interferogenic TLR9 agonist, SD-101, in anti-PD-1 nonresponders led to a complete, durable rejection of essentially all injected tumors and a majority of uninjected, distant-site tumors. Therapeutic efficacy of the combination was also observed with the TSA mammary adenocarcinoma and MCA38 colon carcinoma tumor models that show little response to PD-1 blockade alone. Intratumoral SD-101 substantially increased leukocyte infiltration and IFN-regulated gene expression, and its activity was dependent on CD8+ T cells and type I IFN signaling. Anti-PD-1 plus intratumoral SD-101 promoted infiltration of activated, proliferating CD8+ T cells and led to a synergistic increase in total and tumor antigen-specific CD8+ T cells expressing both IFN-γ and TNF-α. Additionally, PD-1 blockade could alter the CpG-mediated differentiation of tumor-specific CD8+ T cells into CD127lowKLRG1high short-lived effector cells, preferentially expanding the CD127highKLRG1low long-lived memory precursors. Tumor control and intratumoral T-cell proliferation in response to the combined treatment is independent of T-cell trafficking from secondary lymphoid organs. These findings suggest that a CpG oligonucleotide given intratumorally may increase the response of cancer patients to PD-1 blockade, increasing the quantity and the quality of tumor-specific CD8+ T cells.

A CpG-Ficoll Nanoparticle Adjuvant for Anthrax Protective Antigen Enhances Immunogenicity and Provides Single-Immunization Protection against Inhaled Anthrax in Monkeys.

Nanoparticulate delivery systems for vaccine adjuvants, designed to enhance targeting of secondary lymphoid organs and activation of APCs, have shown substantial promise for enhanced immunopotentiation. We investigated the adjuvant activity of synthetic oligonucleotides containing CpG-rich motifs linked to the sucrose polymer Ficoll, forming soluble 50-nm particles (DV230-Ficoll), each containing >100 molecules of the TLR9 ligand, DV230. DV230-Ficoll was evaluated as an adjuvant for a candidate vaccine for anthrax using recombinant protective Ag (rPA) from Bacillus anthracis. A single immunization with rPA plus DV230-Ficoll induced 10-fold higher titers of toxin-neutralizing Abs in cynomolgus monkeys at 2 wk compared with animals immunized with equivalent amounts of monomeric DV230. Monkeys immunized either once or twice with rPA plus DV230-Ficoll were completely protected from challenge with 200 LD50 aerosolized anthrax spores. In mice, DV230-Ficoll was more potent than DV230 for the induction of innate immune responses at the injection site and draining lymph nodes. DV230-Ficoll was preferentially colocalized with rPA in key APC populations and induced greater maturation marker expression (CD69 and CD86) on these cells and stronger germinal center B and T cell responses, relative to DV230. DV230-Ficoll was also preferentially retained at the injection site and draining lymph nodes and produced fewer systemic inflammatory responses. These findings support the development of DV230-Ficoll as an adjuvant platform, particularly for vaccines such as for anthrax, for which rapid induction of protective immunity and memory with a single injection is very important.

Optimization, Production, and Characterization of a CpG-Oligonucleotide-Ficoll Conjugate Nanoparticle Adjuvant for Enhanced Immunogenicity of Anthrax Protective Antigen.

We have synthesized and characterized a novel phosphorothioate CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (CpG ODN)-Ficoll conjugated nanoparticulate adjuvant, termed DV230-Ficoll. This adjuvant was constructed from an amine-functionalized-Ficoll, a heterobifunctional linker (succinimidyl-[(N-maleimidopropionamido)-hexaethylene glycol] ester) and the CpG-ODN DV230. Herein, we describe the evaluation of the purity and reactivity of linkers of different lengths for CpG-ODN-Ficoll conjugation, optimization of linker coupling, and conjugation of thiol-functionalized CpG to maleimide-functionalized Ficoll and process scale-up. Physicochemical characterization of independently produced lots of DV230-Ficoll reveal a bioconjugate with a particle size of approximately 50 nm and covalent attachment of more than 100 molecules of CpG per Ficoll. Solutions of purified DV230-Ficoll were stable for at least 12 months at frozen and refrigerated temperatures and stability was further enhanced in lyophilized form. Compared to nonconjugated monomeric DV230, the DV230-Ficoll conjugate demonstrated improved in vitro potency for induction of IFN-α from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and induced higher titer neutralizing antibody responses against coadministered anthrax recombinant protective antigen in mice. The processes described here establish a reproducible and robust process for the synthesis of a novel, size-controlled, and stable CpG-ODN nanoparticle adjuvant suitable for manufacture and use in vaccines.

TLR recognition of self nucleic acids hampers glucocorticoid activity in lupus.

Glucocorticoids are widely used to treat patients with autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). However, regimens used to treat many such conditions cannot maintain disease control in the majority of SLE patients and more aggressive approaches such as high-dose methylprednisolone pulse therapy are used to provide transient reductions in disease activity. The primary anti-inflammatory mechanism of glucocorticoids is thought to be NF-kappaB inhibition. Recognition of self nucleic acids by toll-like receptors TLR7 and TLR9 on B cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) is an important step in the pathogenesis of SLE, promoting anti-nuclear antibodies and the production of type I interferon (IFN), both correlated with the severity of disease. Following their activation by self-nucleic acid-associated immune complexes, PDCs migrate to the tissues. We demonstrate, in vitro and in vivo, that stimulation of PDCs through TLR7 and 9 can account for the reduced activity of glucocorticoids to inhibit the IFN pathway in SLE patients and in two lupus-prone mouse strains. The triggering of PDCs through TLR7 and 9 by nucleic acid-containing immune complexes or by synthetic ligands activates the NF-kappaB pathway essential for PDC survival. Glucocorticoids do not affect NF-kappaB activation in PDCs, preventing glucocorticoid induction of PDC death and the consequent reduction of systemic IFN-alpha levels. These findings unveil a new role for self nucleic acid recognition by TLRs and indicate that inhibitors of TLR7 and 9 signalling could prove to be effective corticosteroid-sparing drugs.

A limited CpG-containing oligodeoxynucleotide therapy regimen induces sustained suppression of allergic airway inflammation in mice.

BACKGROUND: CpG-containing oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-ODNs) are potent inhibitors of T helper 2 mediated allergic airway disease in sensitised mice challenged with allergen. A single treatment has transient effects but a limited series of treatments has potential to achieve clinically meaningful sustained inhibition of allergic airway disease. OBJECTIVE: To optimise the treatment regimen for sustained efficacy and to determine the mechanisms of action in mice of an inhaled form of CpG-ODN being developed for human asthma treatment. METHODS: We set up a chronic allergic-asthma model using ragweed-sensitised mice exposed weekly to intranasal ragweed. Using this model, the effects of a limited series of weekly intranasal 1018 ISS (CpG-ODN; B-class) treatments were evaluated during treatment and for several weeks after treatments had stopped but weekly allergen exposures continued. Treatment efficacy was evaluated by measuring effects on lung T helper 2 cytokines and eosinophilia, and lung dendritic cell function and T-cell responses. RESULTS: Twelve intranasal 1018 ISS treatments induced significant suppression of bronchoalveolar lavage eosinophilia and interleukin 4, 5 and 13 levels. This suppression of allergic T helper 2 parameters was maintained through 13 weekly ragweed exposures administered after treatment cessation. Subsequent experiments demonstrated that at least five treatments were required for lasting suppression. Although CpG-ODN induced moderate T helper 1 responses, suppression of allergic airway disease did not require interferon γ but was associated with induction of a regulatory T-cell response. CONCLUSIONS: A short series of CpG-ODN treatments results in sustained suppression of allergic lung inflammation induced by a clinically relevant allergen.

Therapeutic targeting of innate immunity with Toll-like receptor agonists and antagonists.

The identification of the antigen recognition receptors for innate immunity, most notably the Toll-like receptors, has sparked great interest in therapeutic manipulation of the innate immune system. Toll-like receptor agonists are being developed for the treatment of cancer, allergies and viral infections, and as adjuvants for potent new vaccines to prevent or treat cancer and infectious diseases. As recognition grows of the role of inappropriate Toll-like receptor stimulation in inflammation and autoimmunity, significant efforts have begun to develop antagonists to Toll-like receptors as well.

Properties regulating the nature of the plasmacytoid dendritic cell response to Toll-like receptor 9 activation.

Human plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) can produce interferon (IFN)-alpha and/or mature and participate in the adaptive immune response. Three classes of CpG oligonucleotide ligands for Toll-like receptor (TLR)9 can be distinguished by different sequence motifs and different abilities to stimulate IFN-alpha production and maturation of PDCs. We show that the nature of the PDC response is determined by the higher order structure and endosomal location of the CpG oligonucleotide. Activation of TLR9 by the multimeric CpG-A occurs in transferrin receptor (TfR)-positive endosomes and leads exclusively to IFN-alpha production, whereas monomeric CpG-B oligonucleotides localize to lysosome-associated membrane protein (LAMP)-1-positive endosomes and promote maturation of PDCs. However, CpG-B, when complexed into microparticles, localizes in TfR-positive endosomes and induces IFN-alpha from PDCs, whereas monomeric forms of CpG-A localize to LAMP-1-positive endosomes accompanied by the loss of IFN-alpha production and a gain in PDC maturation activity. CpG-C sequences, which induce both IFN-alpha and maturation of PDCs, are distributed in both type of endosomes. Encapsulation of CpG-C in liposomes stable above pH 5.75 completely abrogated the IFN-alpha response while increasing PDC maturation. This establishes that the primary determinant of TLR9 signaling is not valency but endosomal location and demonstrates a strict compartmentalization of the biological response to TLR9 activation in PDCs.

Development of TLR inhibitors for the treatment of autoimmune diseases.

SUMMARY: The innate immune system is a critical element of protection from invading pathogens. The specific receptors that recognize various components of the pathogens trigger signals that result in the production of proinflammatory cytokines as well as the activation of antigen-presenting cells, which activate the adaptive immune system. The discovery of the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) as important components of pathogen recognition has brought new understanding of the key signaling molecules involves in innate immune activation. Interestingly, it appears that most TLRs can recognize self-ligands as well and that mechanisms are required to discriminate between self and non-self ligands. One of these mechanisms is the expression of all the nucleic acid-specific TLR in endosomal compartments and not on the cell surface. Inappropriate activation of TLRs by self-components can result in sterile inflammation or autoimmunity. For example, TLR7 and TLR9 activation by endogenous RNA and DNA, transported to the endosomes in the form of immune complexes or non-covalently associated with cationic peptides, could be an important mechanism involved in promoting diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus and psoriasis. In this review, we discuss the rationale for self-recognition by TLR7 and TLR9 as an important part of the development of lupus and other autoimmune diseases. We describe novel inhibitors of these receptors and provide evidence to support their use as novel therapeutic agents for autoimmunity.

A CpG 1018 adjuvanted neuraminidase vaccine provides robust protection from influenza virus challenge in mice.

Influenza virus infections pose a significant threat to global health. Vaccination is the main countermeasure against influenza virus spread, however, the effectiveness of vaccines is variable. Current seasonal influenza virus vaccines mostly rely on the immunodominant hemagglutinin (HA) glycoprotein on the viral surface, which usually leads to a narrow and strain-specific immune response. The HA undergoes constant antigenic drift, which can lead to a dramatic loss in vaccine effectiveness, requiring the annual reformulation and readministration of influenza virus vaccines. Recently, it has been demonstrated that the subdominant glycoprotein, neuraminidase (NA), is an attractive target for vaccine development. Here, we tested a newly developed recombinant influenza virus N1 neuraminidase vaccine candidate, named N1-MPP, adjuvanted with CpG 1018, a TLR9 agonist. Additionally, N2-MPP and B-NA-MPP vaccine constructs have been generated to cover the range of influenza viruses that are seasonally circulating in humans. These constructs have been characterized in vitro and in vivo regarding their functionality and protective potential. Furthermore, a trivalent NA-MPP mix was tested. No antigenic competition between the individual NA constructs was detected. By adjuvating the recombinant protein constructs with CpG 1018 it was possible to induce a strong and robust immune response against the NA, which provided full protection against morbidity and mortality after high lethal challenges in vivo. This study provides important insights for the development of a broadly protective NA-based influenza virus vaccine candidate.

Adjuvanting a subunit SARS-CoV-2 vaccine with clinically relevant adjuvants induces durable protection in mice.

Adjuvants enhance the magnitude and the durability of the immune response to vaccines. However, there is a paucity of comparative studies on the nature of the immune responses stimulated by leading adjuvant candidates. In this study, we compared five clinically relevant adjuvants in mice-alum, AS03 (a squalene-based adjuvant supplemented with α-tocopherol), AS37 (a TLR7 ligand emulsified in alum), CpG1018 (a TLR9 ligand emulsified in alum), O/W 1849101 (a squalene-based adjuvant)-for their capacity to stimulate immune responses when combined with a subunit vaccine under clinical development. We found that all four of the adjuvant candidates surpassed alum with respect to their capacity to induce enhanced and durable antigen-specific antibody responses. The TLR-agonist-based adjuvants CpG1018 (TLR9) and AS37 (TLR7) induced Th1-skewed CD4+ T cell responses, while alum, O/W, and AS03 induced a balanced Th1/Th2 response. Consistent with this, adjuvants induced distinct patterns of early innate responses. Finally, vaccines adjuvanted with AS03, AS37, and CpG1018/alum-induced durable neutralizing-antibody responses and significant protection against the B.1.351 variant 7 months following immunization. These results, together with our recent results from an identical study in non-human primates (NHPs), provide a comparative benchmarking of five clinically relevant vaccine adjuvants for their capacity to stimulate immunity to a subunit vaccine, demonstrating the capacity of adjuvanted SARS-CoV-2 subunit vaccines to provide durable protection against the B.1.351 variant. Furthermore, these results reveal differences between the widely-used C57BL/6 mouse strain and NHP animal models, highlighting the importance of species selection for future vaccine and adjuvant studies.

Nonhuman primate models of asthma.

Asthma is a complex human disease that does not have an accurate counterpart in any common model organism. Most of our understanding of the immune mechanisms underlying asthma comes from studies in man and mouse. However, there are fundamental differences between the spontaneous disease in man and the experimentally induced counterparts in mice. We advocate more extensive use of nonhuman primate asthma models to reconcile these differences between man and mouse.

Immunostimulatory oligonucleotides block allergic airway inflammation by inhibiting Th2 cell activation and IgE-mediated cytokine induction.

A single treatment with a CpG-containing immunostimulatory DNA sequence (ISS) given before allergen challenge can inhibit T helper type 2 cell (Th2)-mediated airway responses in animal models of allergic asthma; however, the mechanism of this inhibition remains largely undefined. Here, we demonstrate that airway delivery of ISS before allergen challenge in Th2-primed mice acts in two distinct ways to prevent the allergic responses to this challenge. The first is to prevent induction of cytokines from allergen-specific Th2 cells, as demonstrated by the nearly complete inhibition of Th2 cytokine production, Th2-dependent functional responses, and gene induction patterns. ISS inhibits the Th2 response by rendering lung antigen-presenting cells (APCs) unable to effectively present antigen to Th2 cells, but not to Th1 cells. This loss of APC function correlates with a reduced expression of costimulatory molecules, including programmed cell death ligand (PD-L)1, PD-L2, CD40, CD80, CD86, and inducible T cell costimulator, and of major histocompatibility complex class II on CD11c(+ )APCs from the airways of ISS-treated mice. The second important action of ISS is inhibition of immunoglobulin E-dependent release of Th2 cytokines, especially interleukin 4, from basophils and/or mast cells in the airways of Th2-primed mice. Thus, inhibition by ISS of allergic responses can be explained by two novel mechanisms that culminate in the inhibition of the principal sources of type 2 cytokines in the airways.

T cells that cannot respond to TGF-beta escape control by CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells.

CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T (T reg) cells play a pivotal role in control of the immune response. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) has been shown to be required for T reg cell activity; however, precisely how it is involved in the mechanism of suppression is poorly understood. Using the T cell transfer model of colitis, we show here that CD4(+)CD45RB(high) T cells that express a dominant negative TGF-beta receptor type II (dnTbetaRII) and therefore cannot respond to TGF-beta, escape control by T reg cells in vivo. CD4(+)CD25(+) T reg cells from the thymus of dnTbetaRII mice retain the ability to inhibit colitis, suggesting that T cell responsiveness to TGF-beta is not required for the development or peripheral function of thymic-derived T reg cells. In contrast, T reg cell activity among the peripheral dnTbetaRII CD4(+)CD25(+) population is masked by the presence of colitogenic effector cells that cannot be suppressed. Finally, we show that CD4(+)CD25(+) T reg cells develop normally in the absence of TGF-beta1 and retain the ability to suppress colitis in vivo. Importantly, the function of TGF-beta1(-/-) T reg cells was abrogated by anti-TGF-beta monoclonal antibody, indicating that functional TGF-beta can be provided by a non-T reg cell source.

Nucleic acids of mammalian origin can act as endogenous ligands for Toll-like receptors and may promote systemic lupus erythematosus.

Raised serum levels of interferon (IFN)-alpha have been observed in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients, and these levels are correlated with both disease activity and severity. The origin of this IFN-alpha is still unclear, but increasing evidence suggests the critical involvement of activated plasmacytoid predendritic cells (PDCs). In SLE patients, DNA and RNA viruses, as well as immune complexes (ICs), that consist of autoantibodies specific to self-DNA and RNA protein particles can stimulate production of IFN-alpha. We have developed three series of oligonucleotide (ODN)-based inhibitors of Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling. These ODNs include inhibitors of TLR9, inhibitors of TLR7 but not TLR9, and sequences that inhibit both TLR7 and TLR9. Specificity of these inhibitors is confirmed by inhibition of IFN-alpha production by PDCs in response to DNA or RNA viruses. We show that mammalian DNA and RNA, in the form of ICs, are potent self-antigens for TLR9 and TLR7, respectively, and induce IFN-alpha production by PDCs. This work suggests that TLRs may have a critical role in the promotion of lupus through the induction of IFN-alpha by PDCs. These inhibitors of TLR signaling thus represent novel therapeutic agents with potential for the treatment of lupus.