High burden of self-reported sexually transmitted infections among key populations in Mozambique: the urgent need for an integrated surveillance system.

BACKGROUND: Key populations - men who have sex with men (MSM), female sex workers (FSW) and people who inject drugs (PWID) - are at high risk for sexually transmitted infections (STI) given their sexual risk behaviours along with social, legal and structural barriers to prevention, care and treatment services. The purpose of this secondary analysis is to assess the prevalence of self-reported STIs and to describe associated risk factors among participations of the first Biological Behavioural Surveillance (BBS) in Mozambique. METHODS: Responses from the first BBS surveys conducted in 2011-2014 were aggregated across survey-cities to produce pooled estimates for each population. Aggregate weighted estimates were computed to analyse self-reported STI prevalence. Unweighted pooled estimates were used in multivariable logistic regression to identify risk factors associated with self-reported STI. RESULTS: The prevalence of self-reported STI was 11.9% (95% CI, 7.8-16.0), 33.6% (95% CI, 29.0-41.3), and 22.0% (95% CI, 17.0-27.0) among MSM, FSW and PWID, respectively. MSM who were circumcised, had HIV, reported drug use, reported receptive anal sex, and non-condom use with their last male partner had greater odds of STI self-report. STI-self report among FSW was associated with living in Beira, being married, employment aside from sex work, physical violence, sexual violence, drug use, access to comprehensive HIV prevention services, non-condom use with last client, and sexual relationship with a non-client romantic partner. Among PWID, risk factors for self-reported STI included living in Nampula/Nacala, access to HIV prevention services, and sex work. CONCLUSION: The high-burden of STIs among survey participants requires integrated HIV and STI prevention, treatment, and harm reduction services that address overlapping risk behaviours, especially injection drug use and sex work. A robust public health response requires the creation of a national STI surveillance system for better screening and diagnostic procedures within these vulnerable populations.

Serotype distribution and antimicrobial resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae in children with acute bacterial meningitis in Mozambique: implications for a national immunization strategy.

BACKGROUND: S. pneumoniae is the leading cause of acute bacterial meningitis (ABM) in children. Vaccination using the 10-valent conjugate vaccine (PCV-10) was recently introduced into the National Immunization Program in Mozambique, but data on serotype coverage of this vaccine formulation are scarce. In this study, we investigated the serotype distribution and antimicrobial resistance of isolates of S. pneumoniae causing ABM in children < 5 years at the two largest hospitals in Mozambique. METHODS: Between March 2013 and March 2014, a total of 352 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were collected from eligible children, of which 119 (33.8 %) were positive for S. pneumoniae. Of these, only 50 samples met the criteria for serotyping and were subsequently serotyped using sequential multiplex PCR (SM-PCR), but 15 samples were non-typable. RESULTS: The most common serotypes of S. pneumoniae were 1 (18.2 %), 5 (15.2 %), 14 (12.1 %), 9 V (12.1 %), 23 F (9.1 %), 6A (9.1 %), 4 (9.1 %) and 6B (6.1 %). Serotypes 1, 5, 9 V, 6A and 12 were mostly prevalent in Northern Mozambique, while serotypes 23 F, 4, 6B, 3 and 15B were predominant in Southern. Serotype coverage of PCV-10 and PCV-13 vaccine formulations were 81.8 % and 93.9 %, respectively. Serotypes 1, 3, 4, 6B, 14, 23 F were resistant to penicillin and sensitive to ceftriaxone. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings shows that changing the current in use PCV-10 vaccine formulation to PCV-13 formulation might increase substantially the protection against invasive strains of S. pneumoniae as the PCV-10 vaccine formulation does not cover the serotypes 3 and 6A, which are prevalent in Mozambique.

Etiology of meningitis among adults in three quaternary hospitals in Mozambique, 2016-2017: The role of HIV.

BACKGROUND: Meningitis remains an important cause of morbi-mortality in adults in sub-Saharan Africa. Data on the etiological investigation of meningitis in adults in Mozambique is limited and most studies were conducted in southern Mozambique. Identification of the etiology of meningitis in adults are crucial to guide prevention and treatments strategies. In this study, we determine the burden of fungal and bacterial meningitis among adults at the three largest hospitals in Mozambique. METHOD: We performed analysis of data from the routine sentinel surveillance system for meningitis in Mozambique from January 2016 to December 2017. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were collected from eligible adults (≥18 years old) who met World Health Organization (WHO) case definition criteria for Meningitis. All samples were tested by cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) lateral flow assay (LFA), culture and triplex real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay and all patients were tested for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) using the national algorithm for HIV testing. RESULTS: Retrospective analysis of 1501 CSF samples from adults clinically suspected of meningitis revealed that 10.5% (158/1501) were positive for bacterial and fungal meningitis. Of these 158 confirmed cases, the proportion of Cryptococcal meningitis and pneumococcal meningitis was38.6% (95% CI: 31.0% to 46.7%) and 36.7% (95% CI: 29.2% to 44.7%), respectively. The other bacterial agents of meningitis identified include Neisseria meningitidis (8.9%; 14/158), Escherichia coli (6.3%; 10/158), Haemophilus influenzae (5.1%; 8/158) and S. aureus (4.4%; 7/158), which represent (24.7%; 39/158) of the total confirmed cases. CONCLUSION: Altogether, our findings show a high burden of Cryptococcal meningitis among adults in Mozambique, especially in people living with HIV, followed by pneumococcal meningitis. Our findings suggest that rollout of CrAg Lateral Flow Assay in the health system in Mozambique for early detection of cryptococcus neoformans is necessary to improve overall patient care.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding antibiotic use in Maputo City, Mozambique.

BACKGROUND: Irrational use of antibiotics is a major driver of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) worldwide. Sub-Saharan Africa, where the risk of spread of AMR is highest, lacks data on the knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding antibiotic prescription and use. This is the first study in Mozambique to address this gap. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2016 in 1091 adults (age ≥18 years) living in five districts in peri-urban areas of Maputo City. Three stage cluster sampling was used to select the households. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect information on the knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding antibiotics and their use and socio-demographic data. RESULTS: Of the 1091 participants, 20.9% (228/1091) had used non-prescribed antibiotics. Most of the non-prescribed antibiotics were purchased in pharmacies (199/228; 87.3%). The proportion of use of non-prescribed antibiotics was higher in those who purchased from informal markets (82.6%; 14/17) and home stores (66.7%; 12/18), compared to pharmacies (24.6%; 199/810) (p = 0.000). Variables significantly associated with use of non-prescribed antibiotics were male gender (p = 0.004), living in the Central A (p<0.001), Aeroporto B (p<0.001) or 25 de Junho (p<0.001) neighborhoods, purchase of antibiotics in informal markets (p<0.002) or obtaining from home stores (p = 0.026), not completing the course (p<0.001) and having poor knowledge on the use of antibiotics (p<0.001). Main reasons for use of non-prescribed antibiotics were a perception that there was no need to attend a health facility (26.8%), followed by someone else's advice (7.7%), symptoms similar to a previous episode (6.2%) and poor quality of care in health facilities (6.7%). CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows for the first time that knowledge regarding antibiotics is poor in Maputo City. Purchase of non-prescribed antibiotics is a common practice and most are sold in pharmacies, indicating deficient inspection. Interventions to reinforce adherence by pharmacies to current legislation for dispensing antibiotics, combined with community education are urgently needed.

Characterization of strains of Neisseria meningitidis causing meningococcal meningitis in Mozambique, 2014: Implications for vaccination against meningococcal meningitis.

INTRODUCTION: In sub Saharan Africa, the epidemiology, including the distribution of serogroups of strains of N. meningitidis is poorly investigated in countries outside "the meningitis belt". This study was conducted with the aim to determine the distribution of serogroups of strains of N. meningitidis causing meningococcal meningitis in children and adults in Mozambique. METHODS: A total of 106 PCR confirmed Neisseria meningitidis Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) samples or isolates were obtained from the biobank of acute bacterial meningitis (ABM) surveillance being implemented by the National Institute of Health, at three central hospitals in Mozambique, from January to December 2014. Serogroups of N. meningitidis were determined using conventional PCR, targeting siaD gene for Neisseria meningitidis. Outer Membrane Proteins (OMP) Genotyping was performed by amplifying porA gene in nine samples. RESULTS: Of the 106 PCR confirmed Neisseria meningitidis samples, the most frequent serotype was A (50.0%, 53/106), followed by W/Y (18.9%, 20/106), C (8.5%, 9/106), X (7.5%, 8/106) and B (0.9%, 1/106). We found non-groupable strains in a total of 15 (14.2%) samples. PorA genotypes from nine strains showed expected patterns with the exception of two serogroup C strains with P1.19,15,36 and P1.19-36,15 and one serogroup X with P1.19,15,36, variants frequently associated to serogroup B. CONCLUSION: Our data shows that the number of cases of meningococcal meningitis routinely reported in central hospitals in Mozambique is significant and the most dominant serogroup is A. In conclusion, although serogroup A has almost been eliminated from the "meningitis belt", this serogroup remains a major concern in countries outside the belt such as Mozambique.

Surveillance of impact of PCV-10 vaccine on pneumococcal meningitis in Mozambique, 2013 - 2015.

BACKGROUND: Vaccination using the 10-valent conjugate vaccine (PCV-10) was introduced into the Extended Program on Immunization in Mozambique in March 2013, however its impact on pediatric pneumococcal meningitis is unknown. In this study, we assessed for the first time the impact of PCV10 on the burden of pneumococcal meningitis in children less than 5 years of age at the three largest hospitals in Mozambique. METHOD: Between March 2013 and December 2015, a total of 744 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were collected from eligible children, of which 160 (21.5%) were positive for S. pneumoniae. Of these, only 86 samples met the criteria for serotyping and were subsequently serotyped using sequential multiplex PCR (SM-PCR), but 17 samples were non-typable. RESULTS: The proportion of cases of pneumococcal meningitis decreased from 33.6% (124 of 369) in 2013 to 1.9% (3 of 160) in 2015 (p < 0.001). The relative frequency of PCV10 serotype cases also decreased from 84.2% (48 of 57) in 2013 to 0% (0 of 3) in 2015 (p = 0.006). Between 2013 and 2015, serotype coverage of PCV-10 and PCV13 vaccine formulations was 66.7% and 81.2%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Altogether, our findings shows that introduction of PCV-10 immunization resulted in rapid decline of pneumococcal meningitis children less than 5 years old in Mozambique. This decline was accompanied by substantial changes in the pattern of circulating pneumococcal serotypes.

Frequency of Pathogenic Paediatric Bacterial Meningitis in Mozambique: The Critical Role of Multiplex Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction to Estimate the Burden of Disease.

BACKGROUND: In Sub-Saharan Africa, including Mozambique, acute bacterial meningitis (ABM) represents a main cause of childhood mortality. The burden of ABM is seriously underestimated because of the poor performance of culture sampling, the primary method of ABM surveillance in the region. Low quality cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples and frequent consumption of antibiotics prior to sample collection lead to a high rate of false-negative results. To our knowledge, this study is the first to determine the frequency of ABM in Mozambique using real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and to compare results to those of culture sampling. METHOD: Between March 2013 and March 2014, CSF samples were collected at 3 regional hospitals from patients under 5 years of age, who met World Health Organization case definition criteria for ABM. Macroscopic examination, cytochemical study, culture, and qPCR were performed on all samples. RESULTS: A total of 369 CSF samples were collected from children clinically suspected of ABM. qPCR showed a significantly higher detection rate of ABM-causing pathogens when compared to culture (52.3% [193/369] versus 7.3% [27/369], p = 0.000). The frequency of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, group B Streptococci, and Neisseria meningitidis were 32.8% (121/369), 12.2%, (45/369), 3.0% (16/369) and 4.3% (11/369), respectively, significantly higher compared to that obtained on culture (p < 0.001 for each). CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrate that culture is less effective for the diagnosis of ABM than qPCR. The common use of culture rather than qPCR to identify ABM results in serious underestimation of the burden of the disease, and our findings strongly suggest that qPCR should be incorporated into surveillance activities for ABM. In addition, our data showed that S. pneumoniae represents the most common cause of ABM in children under 5 years of age.