An example of the deleterious effects of right ventricular apical pacing.

Pacemaker implantation remains the mainstay of treatment in patients with symptomatic sinus node disease or severe heart block. Despite the dramatic benefits of this therapy, a high burden of ventricular pacing is known to have its disadvantages. Reported is the case of an 85-year-old woman with a history of sick sinus syndrome who presented with congestive heart failure after her atrioventricular sequential pacemaker defaulted to ventricular pacing mode as a result of battery depletion. After replacement of her generator and reinstitution of atrial pacing, dramatic improvements in her symptoms and echocardiographic findings were observed. Although it is difficult to predict which patients will ultimately develop cardiac decompensation as a result of ventricular pacing, closer follow-up and early recognition of these complications is essential to prevent adverse outcomes.

Validity of cardiovascular risk prediction models in Latin America and among Hispanics in the United States of America: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the use and validity of prediction models to estimate the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in Latin America and among Hispanic populations in the United States of America. METHODS: This was a systematic review of three databases: Ovid MEDLINE (1 January 1950-15 April 2010), LILACS (1 January 1988-15 April 2010), and EMBASE (1 January 1988-15 April 2010). MeSH search terms and domains were related to CVD, prediction rules, Latin America (including the Caribbean), and Hispanics in the United States. Database searches were supplemented by correspondence with experts in the field. RESULTS: A total of 1 655 abstracts were identified, of which five cohorts with a total of 13 142 subjects met inclusion criteria. A Mexican cohort showed that the predicted/observed event-rate ratio for coronary heart disease (CHD) according to the Framingham risk score (FRS) was 1.68 (95% CI, 1.26-2.11); incident myocardial infarction, 1.36 (95% CI, 0.90-1.83); and CHD death, 1.21 (95% CI, 0.43-2.00). In Ecuador, a prediction model for CVD and total deaths in hypertensive patients had an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.79 (95% CI, 0.72-0.86), while the World Health Organization method had an AUC of 0.74 (95% CI, 0.67-0.82). A study predicting mortality risk in people with Chagas' disease had an AUC of 0.81 (95% CI, 0.72-0.90). Among a United State s cohort that included Hispanics, FRS overestimated CVD risk for Hispanics with an AUC of 0.69. Another study in the United States that assessed FRS factors predicting CVD death among Mexican-Americans had an AUC of 0.78. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence regarding CVD risk prediction rules in Latin America or among Hispanics in the United States is modest at best. It is likely that the FRS overestimates CVD risk in Hispanics when not properly recalibrated.

[Current status of cardiac rehabilitation in Chile]. / Situación actual de la rehabilitación cardiaca en Chile.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac rehabilitation (CR) programs play an important role in the control and prevention of new cardiac events. AIM: A survey was performed to evaluate the current situation of CR programs in Chile. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A questionnaire evaluating the structure of rehabilitation centers, characteristics of the rehabilitation programs and patients, management of risk factors, reimbursement methods, human resources and potential barriers for an efficient rehabilitation, was mailed to centers dedicated to CR in Chile. RESULTS: Eight centers were contacted and seven responded. Coronary heart disease is the most common underlying disease of attended patients and CR is carried out mainly during phases II and III. All CR centers perform an initial assessment, stratify patients, plan and provide tips on physical activity and nutrition. Only three centers provide help to quit smoking. Lipid profile and blood sugar are assessed in 62% of centers. Most practitioners involved are cardiologists, nurses, physiotherapists and nutritionists, all trained in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The main barrier for their development is the lack of patient referral from practitioners. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the recognized value of CR in the care of patients after a cardiac event, this study reveals the need for further development of such programs and improvement of patient referrals.

The Hispanic paradox in cardiovascular disease and total mortality.

Health statistics and epidemiologic studies have shown that Hispanics live longer than Non Hispanic Whites, despite a high prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors and an average low socioeconomic status, both strong predictors of CVD and mortality. This phenomenon has been dubbed "The Hispanic paradox" and has been demonstrated in old and contemporary cohorts. To date, no factor has been identified that could explain this phenomenon, but socio demographic factors, dietary intake and genetic predisposition have been proposed as possible explanations for the Hispanic paradox. As with the French paradox, where French were found to have a lower rate of coronary heart disease (CHD), helped to identify the role of the Mediterranean diet and wine consumption in the prevention of CHD, the Hispanic paradox could help identify protective factors against CHD. This article describes the current evidence supporting the existence of the Hispanic paradox and provides a brief review on the possible explanations.

Hybrid approach of percutaneous coronary intervention followed by minimally invasive valve operations.

BACKGROUND: A subset of patients requiring coronary revascularization and valve operations may benefit from a hybrid approach of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) followed by a minimally invasive valve operation, rather than the standard combined median sternotomy coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) and a valve operation. This study sought to evaluate the outcomes of this approach in a heterogeneous group of patients with concomitant coronary artery and valvular disease. METHODS: We retrospectively evaluated 222 consecutive patients with coronary artery and valvular heart disease who underwent PCI followed by elective minimally invasive valve operations at our institution between February 2009 and August 2013. RESULTS: A total of 136 men and 86 women were identified. The mean age was 74.6 ± 8.2 years, with 181 (81.5%) undergoing 1-vessel, 27 (12.2%) undergoing 2-vessel, and 14 (6.3%) undergoing 3-vessel PCI. Within a median of 38 days (interquartile range [IQR] 18-65 days), 182 (82%) patients underwent primary and 34 (15.3%) underwent repeated valve operations, which consisted of 185 (83.3%) single-valve and 37 (16.7%) double-valve procedures. Operative mortality occurred in 8 patients (3.6%). At a mean follow-up of 16.2 ± 12 months, 6 patients required PCI, with target-vessel revascularization performed in 4 patients (2.1%). Survival at 1 and 4.5 years was 91.9% and 88.3%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In a heterogeneous group of patients, a hybrid approach of PCI followed by minimally invasive valve operations in patients undergoing primary or repeated valve operations can be performed with excellent outcomes.

Is a minimally invasive approach for resection of benign cardiac masses superior to standard full sternotomy?

A best evidence topic in cardiac surgery was written according to a structured protocol. The question addressed was 'is a minimally invasive approach for resection of benign cardiac masses superior to standard full sternotomy?' A total of 50 papers were found using the reported search, of which, 11 represented the best evidence to answer the clinical question. The authors, country, journal, date of publication, patient group studied, study type, relevant outcomes and results of these papers are tabulated. All 11 papers were retrospective studies, from which 4 were case-control studies comparing the minimally invasive approach with conventional full sternotomy, and 7 were case series. There were two minimally invasive techniques used, a right mini-thoracotomy and a partial hemi-sternotomy, the former being the most commonly used. The resection of benign cardiac masses is a low-risk procedure, with no mortality or conversions to full sternotomy reported. From the 4 case-control studies, cross-clamp time was similar in both groups, and only one report found a prolonged perfusion time with the minimally invasive approach. The incidence of major postoperative complications, including bleeding requiring reoperation (average from case-control studies: 0-4.5 vs 0-5.8%), renal failure (0 vs 0-10%) and prolonged ventilation (6-13 vs 11-19%), for the two approaches was similar. The incidence of postoperative stroke was better for the minimally invasive approach in one study (0 vs 14%, P = 0.023). The main advantages of this technique are shorter intensive care unit (26-31 vs 46-60 h) and hospital stay (3.6-5.2 vs 6.2-7.4 days), the minimally invasive approach being significantly better in one and three reports, respectively. We conclude that minimally invasive resection of a benign cardiac mass using a right mini-thoracotomy approach can be performed with an operative morbidity and mortality at least similar to the standard full sternotomy approach. The information currently available for the minimally invasive approach for the resection of benign cardiac masses is limited and based only on retrospective studies and, therefore, prospective studies are required to confirm the potential benefits of minimally invasive surgery.

The pleiotropic effects and therapeutic potential of the hydroxy-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors in gastrointestinal tract disorders: a comprehensive review.

The hydroxy-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) are used extensively in the treatment of dyslipidemia, and for the prevention and treatment of coronary artery disease and stroke. They have also demonstrated a benefit in a variety of other disease processes through their non-lipid lowering properties, known as pleiotropic effects. Our paper serves as a focused and updated discussion of the pleiotropic effects of statins in gastrointestinal disorders.

Cardiovascular mortality in Hispanics compared to non-Hispanic whites: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the Hispanic paradox.

BACKGROUND: Hispanics, the largest minority in the U.S., have a higher prevalence of several cardiovascular (CV) risk factors than non-Hispanic whites (NHW). However, some studies have shown a paradoxical lower rate of CV events among Hispanics than NHW. OBJECTIVE: To perform a systematic review and a meta-analysis of cohort studies comparing CV mortality and all-cause mortality between Hispanic and NHW populations in the U.S. METHODS: We searched EMBASE, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus databases from 1950 through May 2013, using terms related to Hispanic ethnicity, CV diseases and cohort studies. We pooled risk estimates using the least and most adjusted models of each publication. RESULTS: We found 341 publications of which 17 fulfilled the inclusion criteria; data represent 22,340,554 Hispanics and 88,824,618 NHW, collected from 1950 to 2009. Twelve of the studies stratified the analysis by gender, and one study stratified people by place of birth (e.g. U.S.-born, Mexican-born, and Central/South American-born). There was a statistically significant association between Hispanic ethnicity and lower CV mortality (OR 0.67; 95% CI, 0.57-0.78; p<0.001), and lower all-cause mortality (0.72; 95% CI, 0.63-0.82; p<0.001). A subanalysis including only studies that reported prevalence of CV risk factors found similar results. OR for CV mortality among Hispanics was 0.49; 95% CI 0.30-0.80; p-value <0.01; and OR for all-cause mortality was 0.66; 95% CI 0.43-1.02; p-value 0.06. CONCLUSION: These results confirm the existence of a Hispanic paradox regarding CV mortality. Further studies are needed to identify the mechanisms mediating this protective CV effect in Hispanics.

Availability and characteristics of cardiovascular rehabilitation programs in South America.

PURPOSE: Cardiac rehabilitation (CR) programs decrease morbidity and mortality rates in patients with coronary artery disease, the leading cause of death in Latin America. This study was carried out to assess the characteristics and current level of CR program implementation in South America. METHODS: We carried out a survey of CR programs that were identified using the directory of the South American Society of Cardiology and through an exhaustive search by the investigators. RESULTS: We identified 160 CR programs in 9 of the 10 countries represented in the South American Society of Cardiology and 116 of those responded to our survey. On the basis of survey results from the responding programs, we estimate that the availability of CR programs in South America is extremely low, approximately 1 CR program for every 2 319 312 inhabitants. These CR programs provided services to a median of 180 patients per year (interquartile range, 60-400) and were most commonly led by cardiologists (84%) and physical therapists (72%). Phases I, II, III, and IV CR were offered in 49%, 91%, 89%, and 56% of the centers, respectively. The most commonly perceived barrier to participation in a CR program was lack of referral from the cardiologist or primary care physician, as reported by 70% of the CR program directors. CONCLUSIONS: The number of CR programs in South America appears to be insufficient for a population with a high and growing burden of cardiovascular disease. In addition, there appears to be a significant need for standardization of CR program components and services in the region.

Update: systemic diseases and the cardiovascular system (i): obesity and the heart.

Excess weight is the most prevalent cardiovascular risk factor and certainly the factor that improves the least over time among those with established cardiovascular disease. The association between obesity and cardiovascular disease is complex and not limited to the standard risk factors like hypertension, dyslipidemia, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. In recent years, multiple studies have shown that obesity may cause cardiovascular diseases via multiple disease mechanisms like subclinical inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, increased sympathetic tone, atherogenic lipid profiles, enhanced thrombogenic factors and also through obstructive sleep apnea. Despite the overwhelming data linking obesity to cardiovascular disease, several studies have shown a paradoxical association between obesity and prognosis among those with coronary disease and heart failure, which may be due to limitations of the way we currently define obesity. There is abundant data suggesting that measuring central obesity or total body fat content might be more appropriate than using the body mass index alone. The management of obesity is challenging and studies using lifestyle modification alone or with pharmacologic agents generally have limited success and high levels of weight regain. Bariatric surgery has proven to be an effective and safe way to induce and maintain significant weight loss but is limited to those with medically complicated obesity or people who are severely obese.

Situación actual de la rehabilitación cardiaca en Chile / Current status of cardiac rehabilitation in Chile

Background: Cardiac rehabilitation (CR) programs play an important role in the control and prevention of new cardiac events. Aim: A survey was performed to evaluate the current situation of CR programs in Chile. Material and Methods: A questionnaire evaluating the structure of rehabilitation centers, characteristics of the rehabilitation programs and patients, management of risk factors, reimbursement methods, human resources and potential barriers for an efficient rehabilitation, was mailed to centers dedicated to CR in Chile. Results: Eight centers were contacted and seven responded. Coronary heart disease is the most common underlying disease of attended patients and CR is carried out mainly during phases II and III. All CR centers perform an initial assessment, stratify patients, plan and provide tips on physical activity and nutrition. Only three centers provide help to quit smoking. Lipid profile and blood sugar are assessed in 62% of centers. Most practitioners involved are cardiologists, nurses, physiotherapists and nutritionists, all trained in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The main barrier for their development is the lack of patient referral from practitioners. Conclusions: Despite the recognized value of CR in the care of patients after a cardiac event, this study reveals the need for further development of such programs and improvement of patient referrals.

Validity of cardiovascular risk prediction models in Latin America and among Hispanics in the United States of America: a systematic review / Validez de los modelos de predicción del riesgo de enfermedades cardiovasculares en América Latina y en la población hispana en los Estados Unidos de América: una revisión sistemática

Objective. To assess the use and validity of prediction models to estimate the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in Latin America and among Hispanic populations in the United States of America. Methods. This was a systematic review of three databases: Ovid MEDLINE (1 January 1950­15 April 2010), LILACS (1 January 1988­15 April 2010), and EMBASE (1 January 1988­15 April 2010). MeSH search terms and domains were related to CVD, prediction rules, Latin America (including the Caribbean), and Hispanics in the United States. Database searches were supplemented by correspondence with experts in the field. Results. A total of 1 655 abstracts were identified, of which five cohorts with a total of 13 142 subjects met inclusion criteria. A Mexican cohort showed that the predicted/observed event-rate ratio for coronary heart disease (CHD) according to the Framingham risk score (FRS) was 1.68 (95% CI, 1.26­2.11); incident myocardial infarction, 1.36 (95% CI, 0.90­1.83); and CHD death, 1.21 (95% CI, 0.43­2.00). In Ecuador, a prediction model for CVD and total deaths in hypertensive patients had an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.79 (95% CI, 0.72­0.86), while the World Health Organization method had an AUC of 0.74 (95% CI, 0.67­0.82). A study predicting mortality risk in people with Chagas' disease had an AUC of 0.81 (95% CI, 0.72­0.90). Among a United States cohort that included Hispanics, FRS overestimated CVD risk for Hispanics with an AUC of 0.69. Another study in the United States that assessed FRS factors predicting CVD death among Mexican-Americans had an AUC of 0.78. Conclusions. The evidence regarding CVD risk prediction rules in Latin America or among Hispanics in the United States is modest at best. It is likely that the FRS overestimates CVD risk in Hispanics when not properly recalibrated.

Objetivo. Evaluar el uso y la validez de los modelos de predicción para calcular el riesgo de padecer enfermedades cardiovasculares en América Latina y en poblaciones hispanas en los Estados Unidos de América. Métodos. Se llevó a cabo una revisión sistemática de tres bases de datos: Ovid MEDLINE (1 de enero de 1950 al 15 de abril del 2010), LILACS (1 de enero de 1988 al 15 de abril del 2010) y Embase (1 de enero de 1988 al 15 de abril del 2010). Los términos de búsqueda MeSH y los dominios se relacionaron con las enfermedades cardiovasculares, las reglas de predicción, América Latina (que incluye el Caribe) y los hispanos en los Estados Unidos. Las búsquedas en las bases de datos se complementaron con la opinión de expertos en el tema. Resultados. Se identificaron 1 655 resúmenes, de los cuales reunieron los criterios de inclusión cinco cohortes con un total de 13 142 sujetos. En una cohorte mexicana la razón entre las tasas de sucesos previstos y observados para la cardiopatía coronaria según la escala de valoración del riesgo de Framingham (FRS) fue 1,68 (IC de 95%, 1,26­2,11); para el infarto de miocardio nuevo, 1,36 (IC de 95%, 0,90­1,83); y para la muerte por cardiopatía coronaria, 1,21 (IC de 95%, 0,43­2,00). En el Ecuador, un modelo de predicción de defunción por enfermedades cardiovasculares y total en los pacientes hipertensos presentó un área bajo la curva (AUC) de 0,79 (IC de 95%, 0,72­0,86), mientras que el método de la Organización Mundial de la Salud mostró un AUC de 0,74 (IC de 95%, 0,67­0,82). Un estudio enfocado a predecir el riesgo de mortalidad en las personas con enfermedad de Chagas reveló un AUC de 0,81 (IC de 95%, 0,72­0,90). En una cohorte de los Estados Unidos que incluía población hispana, la FRS sobrestimó el riesgo de sufrir enfermedades cardiovasculares para los hispanos con un AUC de 0,69. Otro estudio realizado en los Estados Unidos en el que se evaluó los factores de la FRS que predecían la muerte debida a enfermedades cardiovasculares en estadounidenses de origen mexicano reveló un AUC de 0,78. Conclusiones. Los datos relacionados con las reglas de predicción del riesgo de sufrir enfermedades cardiovasculares en América Latina o en la población hispana en los Estados Unidos son, en el mejor de los casos, limitados. Es probable que la FRS sobrestime el riesgo de sufrir enfermedades cardiovasculares en la población hispana cuando no se la recalibra de manera adecuada.

Estado actual de la rehabilitación cardiovascular en Colombia (2010) / Current status of cardiovascular rehabilitation in Colombia (2010)

INTRODUCCIÓN: las enfermedades cardiovasculares representan la primera causa de morbimortalidad en muchos países del mundo, entre los que se incluye Colombia. Es así como la rehabilitación cardiovascular se convierte en una estrategia de prevención secundaria con intervención integral y costo-efectiva para este tipo de pacientes. OBJETIVO: evaluar la situación actual de los programas de Rehabilitación Cardiovascular en Colombia. MÉTODOS: estudio descriptivo, realizado por medio de un cuestionario escrito, aplicado al coordinador y/o responsable de cada programa de Rehabilitación Cardiovascular del país. ANÁLISIS DE RESULTADOS: 44 de 49 centros contactados respondieron el cuestionario. 88,6% de los programas pertenece a la red privada y 6,8% a la pública; 75% funciona dentro de un hospital o clínica y 25% son extra hospitalarios. La enfermedad coronaria es la principal patología que genera la remisión de los pacientes a los centros de rehabilitación cardiovascular. El recurso humano es variable en cuanto a su conformación, permanencia y actividades al interior del programa. Todos los centros realizan la fase II, seguida por las fases III (84,1%), I (70,5%) y IV (45,5%). 58% de los programas siempre incluye pruebas diagnósticas de factores de riesgo convencionales (colesterol total y fracciones, triglicéridos y glicemia); 97,7% de los programas refiere evaluar al paciente de manera integral con la inclusión de aspectos de actividad física y nutrición; sin embargo, se evidencia menor porcentaje de implementación del manejo del tabaquismo (45,5%), así como de programas de salud cardiovascular en la mujer (15,95%), prevención cardiovascular para la comunidad (18,2%), pruebas para detección de depresión (25%), apnea del sueño (0%) y caminata de seis minutos (65,9%). La principal barrera detectada en la atención de pacientes corresponde a la falta de remisión por parte del médico tratante (65,9%). CONCLUSIÓN: el desarrollo de los programas de Rehabilitación Cardiovascular en el país debe evaluarse de acuerdo con las cifras de morbimortalidad cardiovascular, la estratificación del riesgo de los pacientes, el acceso al servicio y los resultados más relevantes de este estudio, por lo cual se hace necesario trabajar en la definición de las líneas de base de los requerimientos de los programas que favorezcan el trabajo y la aproximación interdisciplinaria e integral así como el cumplimiento de los objetivos, dando prioridad a la seguridad del paciente.

INTRODUCTION: cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in many countries around the world, including Colombia. Thus, cardiovascular rehabilitation becomes a secondary prevention strategy with integral and cost-effective intervention for these patients. OBJECTIVE: to assess the current status of cardiac rehabilitation programs in Colombia. METHODS: a descriptive study, carried out through a written questionnaire, applied to the coordinator and/or responsible for each cardiac rehabilitation program in the country. RESULT ANALYSIS: 44 of 49 centers contacted answered the questionnaire. 88.6% of the programs belonging to the private network and 6.8% to the public; 75% work within a hospital or clinic and 25% are outpatient. Coronary heart disease is the main pathology that generates the referral of patients to cardiovascular rehabilitation centers. Human resources are variable in their shape, stay and activities within the program. All centers perform phase II, followed by stages III (84.1%), I (70.5%) and IV (45.5%). 58% of the programs always include diagnostic tests for conventional risk factors (total cholesterol and fractions, triglycerides and glucose), 97.7% of the programs referred to assess the patient in a holistic manner including aspects of nutrition and physical activity; however, a lower percentage of implementation of the management of smoking (45.5%), of cardiovascular health programs in women (15.95%), cardiovascular prevention for the community (18.2%), testing detection of depression (25%), sleep apnea (0%) and six minute walk (65.9%) was noticed. The main barrier identified in the care of patients corresponds to the lack of referral by the treating physician (65.9%). CONCLUSION: the development of cardiac rehabilitation programs in the country should be assessed according to the cardiovascular morbidity and mortality rates, risk stratification of patients, access to the service and the most important results of this study, thereby making necessary to work on defining the baselines of the requirements of the programs that encourage work and interdisciplinary and integral approach as well as the fulfillment of the objectives, giving priority to patient safety.

Obesidad y corazón / Obesity and the heart

El exceso de peso es el factor de riesgo de enfermedad cardiovascular más prevalente y ciertamente el factor que menos mejora en sujetos con enfermedad cardiovascular establecida. La asociación entre obesidad y enfermedad cardiovascular es compleja y no se limita a factores mediadores tradicionales como hipertensión, dislipemia y diabetes mellitus tipo 2. En años recientes, diversos estudios han demostrado que la obesidad podría causar enfermedad cardiovascular mediante otros mecanismos como inflamación subclínica, disfunción endotelial, aumento del tono simpático, perfil lipídico aterogénico, factores trombogénicos y apnea obstructiva del sueño. A pesar de la gran cantidad de datos que relacionan la obesidad con la enfermedad cardiovascular, varios estudios han demostrado una asociación paradójica entre la obesidad y el pronóstico en pacientes con enfermedad cardiovascular establecida. Esto se ha atribuido a la manera en que se define actualmente la obesidad. La evidencia indica que sería más apropiado medir la grasa corporal total y usar marcadores de obesidad central, en vez de sólo usar el índice de masa corporal. El manejo de la obesidad es usualmente un reto. Los cambios de estilo de vida o los agentes farmacológicos tienen un efecto pequeño en la pérdida de peso y no previenen la recurrencia. Se ha probado que la cirugía bariátrica es un medio efectivo y seguro para inducir y mantener una pérdida de peso significativa, pero su uso está limitado sólo a pacientes con obesidad clínicamente complicada o con obesidad mórbida (AU)

Excess weight is the most prevalent cardiovascular risk factor and certainly the factor that improves the least over time among those with established cardiovascular disease. The association between obesity and cardiovascular disease is complex and not limited to the standard risk factors like hypertension, dyslipidemia, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. In recent years, multiple studies have shown that obesity may cause cardiovascular diseases via multiple disease mechanisms like subclinical inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, increased sympathetic tone, atherogenic lipid profiles, enhanced thrombogenic factors and also through obstructive sleep apnea. Despite the overwhelming data linking obesity to cardiovascular disease, several studies have shown a paradoxical association between obesity and prognosis among those with coronary disease and heart failure, which may be due to limitations of the way we currently define obesity. There is abundant data suggesting that measuring central obesity or total body fat content might be more appropriate than using the body mass index alone. The management of obesity is challenging and studies using lifestyle modification alone or with pharmacologic agents generally have limited success and high levels of weight regain. Bariatric surgery has proven to be an effective and safe way to induce and maintain significant weight loss but is limited to those with medically complicated obesity or people who are severely obese (AU)

Diagnóstico de obesidad: métodos limitaciones y implicaciones / The diagnosis of obesity: methods, limitations and implications

Actualmente existen m¨¢s de mil millones de adultos con sobrepeso y aproximadamente 300 millones de ellos tienen obesidad. La obesidad se asocia como un factor de riesgo independiente y modificable para la hipertensi¨®n, dislipidemia, diabetes mellitus tipo 2, infarto al miocardio y enfermedad cerebrovascular. En 1995, la Organizaci¨®n Mundial de laSalud, defini¨® obesidad como el exceso de tejido adiposo con un IMC ¡Ý30 kg/m2 y sobrepeso con un IMC ¡Ý25 kg/m2. Varios estudios han descrito que el IMC presenta limitaciones para diagnosticar obesidad, ya que no distingue entre tejido adiposo y masa muscular. Obesidad central se define como acumulaci¨®n de tejido adiposo abdominal y es el tejido metabolicamente activo causante de la resistencia a la insulina y dislipidemia. Recientemente ha emergido un nuevo concepto denominado obesidad con peso normal, el cual se define en individuos con un IMC normal (18,5-24,9 kg/m2) y porcentaje de grasa corporal aumentado (>23,1 % en hombres; >33,3.% en mujeres), con riesgos significativos para enfermedad cardiovascular. El realizar el diagn¨®stico por un m¨¦dico, podr¨ªa llevar al individuoa intentar perder peso, por lo que se han desarrollado m¨¦todos relativamente simples, con uso en la pr¨¢ctica cl¨ªnica, como DEXA, bioimpedancia de m¨²ltiple frecuencia y pletismograf¨ªa con desplazamiento de aire. El IMC es uno de los m¨¦todos m¨¢s usados para el diagn¨®stico de la obesidad, pero con la introducci¨®n de estos nuevos m¨¦todos, el manejo de los individuos con obesidad o sobrepeso podr¨ªa ser m¨¢s adecuado y as¨ª contribuir a parar la creciente epidemia global de obesidad.

Nowadays, there are more than one thous and million overweight adults and at least 300 million have obesity. Obesity is associated as an independent and modifiable risk factor for hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus type 2, myocardial infarction and stroke. In 1995 the World Health Organization defined obesity as a BMI¡Ý30 kg/m2 and overweight as a BMI¡Ý25 kg/m2. In several studies, has been described the BMI has some limitations for the diagnosis of obesity, because it does not distinguish body adiposity from lean mass. Central obesity is defined as an excess of abdominal adiposity that is metabolically active, causing insulin resistance and dyslipidemia. Recently a new concept emerged, normal weight obesity, characterizing individuals with a normal BMI(18.5-24.9 kg/m2) and high body fat percentage (>23.1 % inmen; >33.3 % in women), who may have a higher prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors. The importance of diagnosing obesity in the doctor¡¯s office relies in that it may lead to weight loss. There are methods relatively simple to measure adiposity, like DEXA, multifrequency bioimpedance and air displacement plethysmography that may have a role in clinical practice. The BMI is one of the most used methods to diagnose obesity, although has some limitations, but with the new methods to measure adiposity, there could be a better way to manage obese or overweight individuals and therefore contribute to stop the global obesity epidemic.