Combining EZH2 and HDAC inhibitors to target castration-resistant prostate cancers.

Development of resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) involves epigenetic pathways. A new study in PLOS Biology demonstrates that combined therapy targeting enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) and histone deacetylases (HDACs) may sensitize CRPC to both epigenetic and standard therapies.

Oncogenic gene fusions in nonneoplastic precursors as evidence that bacterial infection can initiate prostate cancer.

Prostate adenocarcinoma is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in men worldwide, and the initiating factors are unknown. Oncogenic TMPRSS2:ERG (ERG+) gene fusions are facilitated by DNA breaks and occur in up to 50% of prostate cancers. Infection-driven inflammation is implicated in the formation of ERG+ fusions, and we hypothesized that these fusions initiate in early inflammation-associated prostate cancer precursor lesions, such as proliferative inflammatory atrophy (PIA), prior to cancer development. We investigated whether bacterial prostatitis is associated with ERG+ precancerous lesions in unique cases with active bacterial infections at the time of radical prostatectomy. We identified a high frequency of ERG+ non-neoplastic-appearing glands in these cases, including ERG+ PIA transitioning to early invasive cancer. These lesions were positive for ERG protein by immunohistochemistry and ERG messenger RNA by in situ hybridization. We additionally verified TMPRSS2:ERG genomic rearrangements in precursor lesions using tricolor fluorescence in situ hybridization. Identification of rearrangement patterns combined with whole-prostate mapping in three dimensions confirmed multiple (up to eight) distinct ERG+ precancerous lesions in infected cases. We further identified the pathogen-derived genotoxin colibactin as a potential source of DNA breaks in clinical cases as well as cultured prostate cells. Overall, we provide evidence that bacterial infections can initiate driver gene alterations in prostate cancer. In addition, our observations indicate that infection-induced ERG+ fusions are an early alteration in the carcinogenic process and that PIA may serve as a direct precursor to prostate cancer.

TET1 regulates DNA repair in human glial cells.

Glioblastomas are the most aggressive of malignant brain cancers with a median patient survival of approximately 18 months. We recently demonstrated that Tet methylcytosine dioxygenase 1(TET1) is involved in cellular responses to ionizing radiation (IR) in glial-, glioblastoma-, and non-tumor-derived cells. This study used a lentiviral-mediated knockdown of TET1 to further dissect the contribution of TET1 to the DNA damage response in glial cell lines by evaluating its role in DNA repair. TET1-deficient glial cell lines displayed attenuated cytotoxicity compared to non-targeted knockdown after treatment with IR but these differences were not observed between control and TET1 deficient in response to inhibitors of Na+/K+-ATPase. Additionally, the percentage of glial cells displaying γH2A.x foci was greatly reduced in TET1-deficient glial cells compared to non-targeted knockdown conditions in response to IR and topoisomerase inhibitors. We also observed a lower percentage and a delay in 53BP1 foci formation, a marker of non-homologous end-joining, in response to IR and topoisomerase inhibitors in TET1-deficient glial cells. DNA-PK, another marker of non-homologous end-joining, was also lower in TET1-deficient glial cell lines. Interestingly, TET1-deficient glial cells displayed higher numbers of DNA strand breaks compared to control cells and repaired DNA breaks less efficiently in Comet assays. We suggest that attenuated DNA repair in TET1 deficient gliomas leads to genomic instability, which underlies poor patient survival.

Enhancing the abscopal effect of radiation and immune checkpoint inhibitor therapies with magnetic nanoparticle hyperthermia in a model of metastatic breast cancer.

Purpose: Enhancing immune responses in triple negative breast cancers (TNBCs) remains a challenge. Our study aimed to determine whether magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle (MION) hyperthermia (HT) can enhance abscopal effects with radiotherapy (RT) and immune checkpoint inhibitors (IT) in a metastatic TNBC model.Methods: One week after implanting 4T1-luc cells into the mammary glands of BALB/c mice, tumors were treated with RT (3 × 8 Gy)±local HT, mild (HTM, 43 °C/20 min) or partially ablative (HTAbl, 45 °C/5 min plus 43 °C/15 min),±IT with anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4 antibodies (both 4 × 10 mg/kg, i.p.). Tumor growth was measured daily. Two weeks after treatment, lungs and livers were harvested for histopathology evaluation of metastases.Results: Compared to untreated controls, all treatment groups demonstrated a decreased tumor volume; however, when compared against surgical resection, only RT + HTM+IT, RT + HTAbl+IT and RT + HTAbl had similar or smaller tumors. These cohorts showed more infiltration of CD3+ T-lymphocytes into the primary tumor. Tumor growth effects were partially reversed with T-cell depletion. Combinations that proved most effective for primary tumors generated modest reductions in numbers of lung metastases. Conversely, numbers of lung metastases showed potential to increase following HT + IT treatment, particularly when compared to RT. Compared to untreated controls, there was no improvement in survival with any treatment.Conclusions: Single-fraction MION HT added to RT + IT improved local tumor control and recruitment of CD3+ T-lymphocytes, with only a modest effect to reduce lung metastases and no improvement in overall survival. HT + IT showed potential to increase metastatic dissemination to lungs.

A functional screen identifies miRNAs that inhibit DNA repair and sensitize prostate cancer cells to ionizing radiation.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been implicated in DNA repair pathways through transcriptional responses to DNA damaging agents or through predicted miRNA regulation of DNA repair genes. We hypothesized that additional DNA damage regulating miRNAs could be identified by screening a library of 810 miRNA mimetics for the ability to alter cellular sensitivity to ionizing radiation (IR). A prostate cancer Metridia luciferase cell model was applied to examine the effects of individual miRNAs on IR sensitivity. A large percentage of miRNA mimetics were found to increase cellular sensitivity to IR, while a smaller percentage were protective. Two of the most potent IR sensitizing miRNAs, miR-890 and miR-744-3p, significantly delayed IR induced DNA damage repair. Both miRNAs inhibited the expression of multiple components of DNA damage response and DNA repair. miR-890 directly targeted MAD2L2, as well as WEE1 and XPC, where miR-744-3p directly targeted RAD23B. Knock-down of individual miR-890 targets by siRNA was not sufficient to ablate miR-890 radiosensitization, signifying that miR-890 functions by regulating multiple DNA repair genes. Intratumoral delivery of miR-890 mimetics prior to IR therapy significantly enhanced IR therapeutic efficacy. These results reveal novel miRNA regulation of DNA repair and identify miR-890 as a potent IR sensitizing agent.

Hydroquinone increases 5-hydroxymethylcytosine formation through ten eleven translocation 1 (TET1) 5-methylcytosine dioxygenase.

DNA methylation regulates gene expression throughout development and in a wide range of pathologies such as cancer and neurological disorders. Pathways controlling the dynamic levels and targets of methylation are known to be disrupted by chemicals and are therefore of great interest in both prevention and clinical contexts. Benzene and its metabolite hydroquinone have been shown to lead to decreased levels of DNA methylation, although the mechanism is not known. This study employs a cell culture model to investigate the mechanism of hydroquinone-mediated changes in DNA methylation. Exposures that do not affect HEK293 cell viability led to genomic and methylated reporter DNA demethylation. Hydroquinone caused reactivation of a methylated reporter plasmid that was prevented by the addition of N-acetylcysteine. Hydroquinone also caused an increase in Ten Eleven Translocation 1 activity and global levels of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine. 5-Hydroxymethylcytosine was found enriched at LINE-1 prior to a decrease in both 5-hydroxymethylcytosine and 5-methylcytosine. Ten Eleven Translocation-1 knockdown decreased 5-hydroxymethylcytosine formation following hydroquinone exposure as well as the induction of glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit and 14-3-3σ. Finally, Ten Eleven Translocation 1 knockdown decreased the percentage of cells accumulating in G2+M following hydroquinone exposure, indicating that it may have a role in cell cycle changes in response to toxicants. This work demonstrates that hydroquinone exposure leads to active and functional DNA demethylation in HEK293 cells in a mechanism involving reactive oxygen species and Ten Eleven Translocation 1 5-methylcytosine dioxygenase.

Induction of a trophoblast-like phenotype by hydralazine in the p19 embryonic carcinoma cell line.

Chemicals that affect cellular differentiation through epigenetic mechanisms have potential utility in treating a wide range of diseases. Hydralazine decreases DNA methylation in some cell types but its effect on differentiation has not been well explored. After five days of exposure to hydralazine, P19 embryocarcinoma cells displayed a giant cell morphology and were binucleate, indicative of a trophoblast-like morphology. Other trophoblast-like properties included the intermediary filament Troma-1/cytokeratin 8 and the transcription factor Tead4. A decrease in CpG methylation at three sites in the TEAD4 promoter and the B1 repeated sequence was observed. Knocking down expression of Tead4 with siRNA blocked the increase in Troma-1/cytokeratin 8 and over expression of Tead4 induced the expression of Troma-1/cytokeratin 8. Cells treated for 5days with hydralazine were no longer capable of undergoing retinoic acid-mediated neuronal differentiation. An irreversible loss of the pluripotent transcription factor Oct-4 was observed following hydralazine exposure. In summary, hydralazine induces P19 cells to assume a trophoblast-like phenotype by upregulating Tead4 expression through a mechanism involving DNA demethylation.

FLASH Effects Induced by Orthovoltage X-Rays.

PURPOSE: This work describes the first implementation and in vivo study of ultrahigh-dose-rate radiation (>37 Gy/s; FLASH) effects induced by kilovoltage (kV) x-ray from a rotating-anode x-ray source. METHODS AND MATERIALS: A high-capacity rotating-anode x-ray tube with an 80-kW generator was implemented for preclinical FLASH radiation research. A custom 3-dimensionally printed immobilization and positioning tool was developed for reproducible irradiation of a mouse hind limb. Calibrated Gafchromic (EBT3) film and thermoluminescent dosimeters (LiF:Mg,Ti) were used for in-phantom and in vivo dosimetry. Healthy FVB/N and FVBN/C57BL/6 outbred mice were irradiated on 1 hind leg to doses up to 43 Gy at FLASH (87 Gy/s) and conventional (CONV; <0.05 Gy/s) dose rates. The radiation doses were delivered using a single pulse with the widths up to 500 ms and 15 minutes at FLASH and CONV dose rates. Histologic assessment of radiation-induced skin damage was performed at 8 weeks posttreatment. Tumor growth suppression was assessed using a B16F10 flank tumor model in C57BL6J mice irradiated to 35 Gy at both FLASH and CONV dose rates. RESULTS: FLASH-irradiated mice experienced milder radiation-induced skin injuries than CONV-irradiated mice, visible by 4 weeks posttreatment. At 8 weeks posttreatment, normal tissue injury was significantly reduced in FLASH-irradiated animals compared with CONV-irradiated animals for histologic endpoints including inflammation, ulceration, hyperplasia, and fibrosis. No difference in tumor growth response was observed between FLASH and CONV irradiations at 35 Gy. The normal tissue sparing effects of FLASH irradiations were observed only for high-severity endpoint of ulceration at 43 Gy, which suggests the dependency of biologic endpoints to FLASH radiation dose. CONCLUSIONS: Rotating-anode x-ray sources can achieve FLASH dose rates in a single pulse with dosimetric properties suitable for small-animal experiments. We observed FLASH normal tissue sparing of radiation toxicities in mouse skin irradiated at 35 Gy with no sacrifice to tumor growth suppression. This study highlights an accessible new modality for laboratory study of the FLASH effect.

Mechanisms, Challenges, and Opportunities in Combined Radiation and Hormonal Therapies.

Androgen receptor signaling blockade is perhaps the first example of targeted therapy in the treatment of cancer. Since the initial observations that prostate cancers depend on hormone signaling, hormonal therapies remain a cornerstone in the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer. Androgen deprivation therapy has been shown to improve outcomes involving treatment of prostate cancers with radiotherapy, though a mechanistic understanding into the optimal sequencing of androgen deprivation therapy and radiotherapy remains incomplete. In this review we highlight key clinical trials designed to study combinations of hormonal and radiotherapies and introduce recent discoveries into the complex biology of androgen receptor signaling and DNA damage and repair. These emerging mechanistic and translational studies may have profound implications on both our understanding of hormonal therapy and radiotherapy combinations and the development of novel treatment strategies for locally-advanced and metastatic castrate resistant prostate cancer.

Sox2 induces glioblastoma cell stemness and tumor propagation by repressing TET2 and deregulating 5hmC and 5mC DNA modifications.

DNA methylation is a reversible process catalyzed by the ten-eleven translocation (TET) family of enzymes (TET1, TET2, TET3) that convert 5-methylcytosine (5mC) to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). Altered patterns of 5hmC and 5mC are widely reported in human cancers and loss of 5hmC correlates with poor prognosis. Understanding the mechanisms leading to 5hmC loss and its role in oncogenesis will advance the development of epigenetic-based therapeutics. We show that TET2 loss associates with glioblastoma (GBM) stem cells and correlates with poor survival of GBM patients. We further identify a SOX2:miR-10b-5p:TET2 axis that represses TET2 expression, represses 5hmC, increases 5mC levels, and induces GBM cell stemness and tumor-propagating potential. In vivo delivery of a miR-10b-5p inhibitor that normalizes TET2 expression and 5hmC levels inhibits tumor growth and prolongs survival of animals bearing pre-established orthotopic GBM xenografts. These findings highlight the importance of TET2 and 5hmC loss in Sox2-driven oncogenesis and their potential for therapeutic targeting.

Identifying Phased Mutations and Complex Rearrangements in Human Prostate Cancer Cell Lines through Linked-Read Whole-Genome Sequencing.

A limited number of cell lines have fueled the majority of preclinical prostate cancer research, but their genomes remain incompletely characterized. Here, we utilized whole-genome linked-read sequencing for comprehensive characterization of phased mutations and rearrangements in the most commonly used cell lines in prostate cancer research including PC3, LNCaP, DU145, CWR22Rv1, VCaP, LAPC4, MDA-PCa-2b, RWPE-1, and four derivative castrate-resistant (CR) cell lines LNCaP_Abl, LNCaP_C42b, VCaP-CR, and LAPC4-CR. Phasing of mutations allowed determination of "gene-level haplotype" to assess whether genes harbored heterozygous mutations in one or both alleles. Phased structural variant analysis allowed identification of complex rearrangement chains consistent with chromothripsis and chromoplexy. In addition, comparison of parental and derivative CR lines revealed previously known and novel genomic alterations associated with the CR phenotype. IMPLICATIONS: This study therefore comprehensively characterized phased genomic alterations in the commonly used prostate cancer cell lines, providing a useful resource for future prostate cancer research.

TET1 deficiency attenuates the DNA damage response and promotes resistance to DNA damaging agents.

Recent studies have shown that loss of TET1 may play a significant role in the formation of tumors. Because genomic instability is a hallmark of cancer, we examined the potential involvement of 10-11 translocation 1 (TET1) in the DNA damage response (DDR). Here we demonstrate that, in response to clinically relevant doses of ionizing radiation (IR), human glial cells made TET1-deficient with lentiviral vectors displayed greater numbers of colony forming units and lower levels of apoptotic markers compared with glial cells transduced with control vectors; yet, they harbored greater DNA strand breaks. The G2/M check point and expression of cyclin B1 were greatly diminished in TET1-deficient cells, and TET1-deficient cells displayed lower levels of γH2A.x following exposure to IR. Levels of DNA-PKcs, which are DNA-PK complex members, were lower in TET1-deficient cells compared with control cell lines. However, levels of ATM were similar in both cell lines. Cyclin B1, DNA-PKcs, and γH2A.x levels were each rescued by reintroduction of the TET1 catalytic domain. Finally, cytosine methylation within intron 1 of PRKDC, the gene encoding DNA-PKcs, was significantly higher upon depletion of TET1. Taken together, this study illustrates the involvement of TET1 in the different arms of the DDR and suggests its loss results in the continued survival of cells with genomic instability.

Androgen Deprivation Followed by Acute Androgen Stimulation Selectively Sensitizes AR-Positive Prostate Cancer Cells to Ionizing Radiation.

PURPOSE: The current standard of care for patients with locally advanced prostate cancer is a combination of androgen deprivation and radiation therapy. Radiation is typically given with androgen suppression when testosterone levels are at their nadir. Recent reports have shown that androgen stimulation of androgen-deprived prostate cancer cells leads to formation of double-strand breaks (DSB). Here, we exploit this finding and investigate the extent and timing of androgen-induced DSBs and their effect on tumor growth following androgen stimulation in combination with ionizing radiation (IR). EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Androgen-induced DNA damage was assessed by comet assays and γH2A.X foci formation. Effects of androgen stimulation and radiation were determined in vitro and in vivo with xenograft models. RESULTS: We document that androgen treatment of androgen-deprived prostate cancer cell lines resulted in a dose- and time-dependent induction of widespread DSBs. Generation of these breaks was dependent on androgen receptor and topoisomerase II beta but not on cell-cycle progression. In vitro models demonstrated a synergistic interaction between IR and androgen stimulation when IR is given at a time point corresponding with high levels of androgen-induced DSB formation. Furthermore, in vivo studies showed a significant improvement in tumor growth delay when radiation was given shortly after androgen repletion in castrated mice. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest a potential cooperative effect and improved tumor growth delay with androgen-induced DSBs and radiation with implications for improving the therapeutic index of prostate cancer radiation therapy. Clin Cancer Res; 22(13); 3310-9. ©2016 AACRSee related commentary by Chua and Bristow, p. 3124.