Quantitative characterization of the X-ray beam at the Australian Synchrotron Imaging and Medical Beamline (IMBL).

A critical early phase for any synchrotron beamline involves detailed testing, characterization and commissioning; this is especially true of a beamline as ambitious and complex as the Imaging & Medical Beamline (IMBL) at the Australian Synchrotron. IMBL staff and expert users have been performing precise experiments aimed at quantitative characterization of the primary polychromatic and monochromatic X-ray beams, with particular emphasis placed on the wiggler insertion devices (IDs), the primary-slit system and any in vacuo and ex vacuo filters. The findings from these studies will be described herein. These results will benefit IMBL and other users in the future, especially those for whom detailed knowledge of the X-ray beam spectrum (or `quality') and flux density is important. This information is critical for radiotherapy and radiobiology users, who ultimately need to know (to better than 5%) what X-ray dose or dose rate is being delivered to their samples. Various correction factors associated with ionization-chamber (IC) dosimetry have been accounted for, e.g. ion recombination, electron-loss effects. A new and innovative approach has been developed in this regard, which can provide confirmation of key parameter values such as the magnetic field in the wiggler and the effective thickness of key filters. IMBL commenced operation in December 2008 with an Advanced Photon Source (APS) wiggler as the (interim) ID. A superconducting multi-pole wiggler was installed and operational in January 2013. Results are obtained for both of these IDs and useful comparisons are made. A comprehensive model of the IMBL has been developed, embodied in a new computer program named spec.exe, which has been validated against a variety of experimental measurements. Having demonstrated the reliability and robustness of the model, it is then possible to use it in a practical and predictive manner. It is hoped that spec.exe will prove to be a useful resource for synchrotron science in general, and for hard X-ray beamlines, whether they are based on bending magnets or insertion devices, in particular. In due course, it is planned to make spec.exe freely available to other synchrotron scientists.

Preclinical radiotherapy at the Australian Synchrotron's Imaging and Medical Beamline: instrumentation, dosimetry and a small-animal feasibility study.

Therapeutic applications of synchrotron X-rays such as microbeam (MRT) and minibeam (MBRT) radiation therapy promise significant advantages over conventional clinical techniques for some diseases if successfully transferred to clinical practice. Preclinical studies show clear evidence that a number of normal tissues in animal models display a tolerance to much higher doses from MRT compared with conventional radiotherapy. However, a wide spread in the parameters studied makes it difficult to make any conclusions about the associated tumour control or normal tissue complication probabilities. To facilitate more systematic and reproducible preclinical synchrotron radiotherapy studies, a dedicated preclinical station including small-animal irradiation stage was designed and installed at the Imaging and Medical Beamline (IMBL) at the Australian Synchrotron. The stage was characterized in terms of the accuracy and reliability of the vertical scanning speed, as this is the key variable in dose delivery. The measured speed was found to be within 1% of the nominal speed for the range of speeds measured by an interferometer. Furthermore, dose measurements confirm the expected relationship between speed and dose and show that the measured dose is independent of the scan direction. Important dosimetric parameters such as peak dose, valley dose, the collimator output factor and peak-to-valley dose ratio are presented for 5 mm × 5 mm, 10 mm × 10 mm and 20 mm × 20 mm field sizes. Finally, a feasibility study on three glioma-bearing rats was performed. MRT and MBRT doses were prescribed to achieve an average dose of 65 Gy in the target, and magnetic resonance imaging follow-up was performed at various time points after irradiation to follow the tumour volume. Although it is impossible to draw conclusions on the different treatments with such a small number of animals, the feasibility of end-to-end preclinical synchrotron radiotherapy studies using the IMBL preclinical stage is demonstrated.

Image guidance protocol for synchrotron microbeam radiation therapy.

The protocol for image-guided microbeam radiotherapy (MRT) developed for the Australian Synchrotron's Imaging and Medical Beamline (IMBL) is described. The protocol has been designed for the small-animal MRT station of IMBL to enable future preclinical trials on rodents. The image guidance procedure allows for low-dose monochromatic imaging at 50 keV and subsequent semi-automated sample alignment in 3D with sub-100 µm accuracy. Following the alignment, a beamline operation mode change is performed and the relevant beamline components are automatically aligned for the treatment (pink) beam to be delivered on the sample. Here, the small-animal MRT station, the parameters and procedures for the image guidance protocol, as well as the experimental imaging results using phantoms are described. Furthermore, the experimental validation of the protocol using 3D PRESAGE(®) dosimeters is reported. It is demonstrated that the sample alignment is maintained after the mode change and the treatment can be delivered within the same spatial accuracy of 100 µm. The results indicate that the proposed approach is viable for preclinical trials of small-animal MRT.

An evaluation of novel real-time technology as a tool for measurement of radiobiological and radiation-induced bystander effects.

The xCELLigence real-time cell impedance system uses a non-invasive and label-free method to create a cell index that is a composite measure of cell proliferation. The aim of this study was to evaluate xCELLigence against clonogenic assay (gold standard) for measuring radiobiological effects and radiation-induced bystander effects (RIBE). A radiobiological study was conducted by irradiating EMT6.5, 4T1.2 and NMUMG cell lines with different radiation doses, while a RIBE study was done using transfer of conditioned media (CM) harvested from donor to the same type of recipient cell (EMT6.5, 4T1.2, NMUMG, HACAT and SW48). CM was harvested using two protocols which differed in the dose chosen and the exposure to the recipient cells. Results showed that xCELLigence measured a radiobiological effect which correlated with the clonogenic assay. For the RIBE study, no statistically significant differences were observed between xCELLigence or clonogenic survival in control or recipient cells incubated with CM in protocol one. However, there was a significant increase in cell index slope using CM from EMT-6.5 cells irradiated at 7.5 Gy compared with the control group under the second protocol. No other evidence of RIBE was detected by either xCELLigence or clonogenic assay. In conclusion, xCELLigence methods can measure radiobiological effects and the results correlate with clonogenic assay. We observed a lack of RIBE in all tested cell lines with the clonogenic assay; however, we observed a RIBE effect in EMT6.5 cells under one particular protocol that showed RIBE is cell type dependent, is not universally observed and can be detected in different assays.

Energy spectra considerations for synchrotron radiotherapy trials on the ID17 bio-medical beamline at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility.

The aim of this study was to validate the kilovoltage X-ray energy spectrum on the ID17 beamline at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF). The purpose of such validation was to provide an accurate energy spectrum as the input to a computerized treatment planning system, which will be used in synchrotron microbeam radiotherapy trials at the ESRF. Calculated and measured energy spectra on ID17 have been reported previously but recent additions and safety modifications to the beamline for veterinary trials warranted a fresh investigation. The authors used an established methodology to compare X-ray attenuation measurements in copper sheets (referred to as half value layer measurements in the radiotherapy field) with the predictions of a theoretical model. A cylindrical ionization chamber in air was used to record the relative attenuation of the X-ray beam intensity by increasing thicknesses of high-purity copper sheets. The authors measured the half value layers in copper for two beamline configurations, which corresponded to differing spectral conditions. The authors obtained good agreement between the measured and predicted half value layers for the two beamline configurations. The measured first half value layer was 1.754 ± 0.035 mm Cu and 1.962 ± 0.039 mm Cu for the two spectral conditions, compared with theoretical predictions of 1.763 ± 0.039 mm Cu and 1.984 ± 0.044 mm Cu, respectively. The calculated mean energies for the two conditions were 105 keV and 110 keV and there was not a substantial difference in the calculated percentage depth dose curves in water between the different spectral conditions. The authors observed a difference between their calculated energy spectra and the spectra previously reported by other authors, particularly at energies greater than 100 keV. The validation of the beam spectrum by the copper half value layer measurements means the authors can provide an accurate spectrum as an input to a treatment planning system for the forthcoming veterinary trials of microbeam radiotherapy to spontaneous tumours in cats and dogs.

Benchmarking and validation of a Geant4-SHADOW Monte Carlo simulation for dose calculations in microbeam radiation therapy.

Microbeam radiation therapy (MRT) is a synchrotron-based radiotherapy modality that uses high-intensity beams of spatially fractionated radiation to treat tumours. The rapid evolution of MRT towards clinical trials demands accurate treatment planning systems (TPS), as well as independent tools for the verification of TPS calculated dose distributions in order to ensure patient safety and treatment efficacy. Monte Carlo computer simulation represents the most accurate method of dose calculation in patient geometries and is best suited for the purpose of TPS verification. A Monte Carlo model of the ID17 biomedical beamline at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility has been developed, including recent modifications, using the Geant4 Monte Carlo toolkit interfaced with the SHADOW X-ray optics and ray-tracing libraries. The code was benchmarked by simulating dose profiles in water-equivalent phantoms subject to irradiation by broad-beam (without spatial fractionation) and microbeam (with spatial fractionation) fields, and comparing against those calculated with a previous model of the beamline developed using the PENELOPE code. Validation against additional experimental dose profiles in water-equivalent phantoms subject to broad-beam irradiation was also performed. Good agreement between codes was observed, with the exception of out-of-field doses and toward the field edge for larger field sizes. Microbeam results showed good agreement between both codes and experimental results within uncertainties. Results of the experimental validation showed agreement for different beamline configurations. The asymmetry in the out-of-field dose profiles due to polarization effects was also investigated, yielding important information for the treatment planning process in MRT. This work represents an important step in the development of a Monte Carlo-based independent verification tool for treatment planning in MRT.

DNA damage and repair kinetics after microbeam radiation therapy emulation in living cells using monoenergetic synchrotron X-ray microbeams.

A novel synchrotron-based approach, known as microbeam radiation therapy (MRT), currently shows considerable promise in increased tumour control and reduced normal tissue damage compared with conventional radiotherapy. Different microbeam widths and separations were investigated using a controlled cell culture system and monoenergetic (5.35 keV) synchrotron X-rays in order to gain further insight into the underlying cellular response to MRT. DNA damage and repair was measured using fluorescent antibodies against phosphorylated histone H2AX, which also allowed us to verify the exact location of the microbeam path. Beam dimensions that reproduced promising MRT strategies were used to identify useful methods to study the underpinnings of MRT. These studies include the investigation of different spatial configurations on bystander effects. γH2AX foci number were robustly induced in directly hit cells and considerable DNA double-strand break repair occurred by 12 h post-10 Gy irradiation; however, many cells had some γH2AX foci at the 12 h time point. γH2AX foci at later time points did not directly correspond with the targeted regions suggesting cell movement or bystander effects as a potential mechanism for MRT effectiveness. Partial irradiation of single nuclei was also investigated and in most cases γH2AX foci were not observed outside the field of irradiation within 1 h after irradiation indicating very little chromatin movement in this time frame. These studies contribute to the understanding of the fundamental radiation biology relating to the MRT response, a potential new therapy for cancer patients.

Spatially Fractionated X-Ray Microbeams Elicit a More Sustained Immune and Inflammatory Response in the Brainstem than Homogenous Irradiation.

Synchrotron microbeam radiation therapy (MRT) is a preclinical irradiation technique which could be used to treat intracranial malignancies. The goal of this work was to discern differences in gene expression and the predicted regulation of molecular pathways in the brainstem after MRT versus synchrotron broad-beam radiation therapy (SBBR). Healthy C57BL/6 mice received whole-head irradiation with median acute toxic doses of MRT (241 Gy peak dose) or SBBR (13 Gy). Brains were harvested 4 and 48 h postirradiation and RNA was extracted from the brainstem. RNA-sequencing was performed to identify differentially expressed genes (false discovery rate < 0.01) relative to nonirradiated controls and significantly regulated molecular pathways and biological functions were identified (Benjamini-Hochberg corrected P < 0.05). Differentially expressed genes and regulated pathways largely reflected a pro-inflammatory response 4 h after both MRT and SBBR which was sustained at 48 h postirradiation for MRT. Pathways relating to radiation-induced viral mimicry, including HMGB1, NF-κB and interferon signaling cascades, were predicted to be uniquely activated by MRT. Local microglia, as well as circulating leukocytes, including T cells, were predicted to be activated by MRT. Our findings affirm that the transcriptomic signature of MRT is distinct from broad-beam radiotherapy, with a sustained inflammatory and immune response up to 48 h postirradiation.

The γH2AX DSB marker may not be a suitable biodosimeter to measure the biological MRT valley dose.

PURPOSE: γH2AX biodosimetry has been proposed as an alternative dosimetry method for microbeam radiation therapy (MRT) because conventional dosimeters, such as ionization chambers, lack the spatial resolution required to accurately measure the MRT valley dose. Here we investigated whether γH2AX biodosimetry should be used to measure the biological valley dose of MRT-irradiated mammalian cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We irradiated human skin fibroblasts and mouse skin flaps with synchrotron MRT and broad beam (BB) radiation. BB doses of 1-5 Gy were used to generate a calibration curve in order to estimate the biological MRT valley dose using the γH2AX assay. RESULTS: Our key finding was that MRT induced a non-linear dose response compared to BB, where doses 2-3 times greater showed the same level of DNA DSB damage in the valley in cell and tissue studies. This indicates that γH2AX may not be an appropriate biodosimeter to estimate the biological valley doses of MRT-irradiated samples. We also established foci yields of 5.9 ± 0.04 and 27.4 ± 2.5  foci/cell/Gy in mouse skin tissue and human fibroblasts respectively, induced by BB. Using Monte Carlo simulations, a linear dose response was seen in cell and tissue studies and produced predicted peak-to-valley dose ratios (PVDRs) of ∼30 and ∼107 for human fibroblasts and mouse skin tissue respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our report highlights novel MRT radiobiology, attempts to explain why γH2AX may not be an appropriate biodosimeter and suggests further studies aimed at revealing the biological and cellular communication mechanisms that drive the normal tissue sparing effect, which is characteristic of MRT.

Pre-treatment verification of intensity modulated radiation therapy plans using a commercial electronic portal dosimetry system.

We commissioned a commercially available portal dosimetry system for quality assurance of intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) treatment plans. The system included gamma analysis software to compare the measured and predicted fluence maps from individual IMRT fields. The portal dosimetry system was tested using six head and neck IMRT patient plans, and we demonstrated that the accuracy of the alignment of measured and predicted images improved by retracting and repositioning the electronic portal imaging device (EPID) at each new gantry angle. The mean gamma score (fraction of pixels passing the gamma criteria) for the six test plans (after initial testing and using the EPID retracting and repositioning method) was 0.987 (2SD = 0.018), using gamma criteria of a dose difference of 2% of the maximum field dose and 2 mm distance to agreement. The mean gamma score was 0.989 (2SD = 0.017) for 24 head and neck IMRT patient plans carried out with portal dosimetry. Using gamma criteria of 2% maximum field dose and 2 mm distance to agreement, a gamma score tolerance of 0.980 is a useful way of highlighting only those fields requiring further analysis. Portal dosimetry is a quick way of assessing individual field fluence distributions and can be integrated into an IMRT quality assurance programme.

Technical advances in x-ray microbeam radiation therapy.

In the last 25 years microbeam radiation therapy (MRT) has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional radiation therapy at large, third generation synchrotrons. In MRT, a multi-slit collimator modulates a kilovoltage x-ray beam on a micrometer scale, creating peak dose areas with unconventionally high doses of several hundred Grays separated by low dose valley regions, where the dose remains well below the tissue tolerance level. Pre-clinical evidence demonstrates that such beam geometries lead to substantially reduced damage to normal tissue at equal tumour control rates and hence drastically increase the therapeutic window. Although the mechanisms behind MRT are still to be elucidated, previous studies indicate that immune response, tumour microenvironment, and the microvasculature may play a crucial role. Beyond tumour therapy, MRT has also been suggested as a microsurgical tool in neurological disorders and as a primer for drug delivery. The physical properties of MRT demand innovative medical physics and engineering solutions for safe treatment delivery. This article reviews technical developments in MRT and discusses existing solutions for dosimetric validation, reliable treatment planning and safety. Instrumentation at synchrotron facilities, including beam production, collimators and patient positioning systems, is also discussed. Specific solutions reviewed in this article include: dosimetry techniques that can cope with high spatial resolution, low photon energies and extremely high dose rates of up to 15 000 Gy s-1, dose calculation algorithms-apart from pure Monte Carlo Simulations-to overcome the challenge of small voxel sizes and a wide dynamic dose-range, and the use of dose-enhancing nanoparticles to combat the limited penetrability of a kilovoltage energy spectrum. Finally, concepts for alternative compact microbeam sources are presented, such as inverse Compton scattering set-ups and carbon nanotube x-ray tubes, that may facilitate the transfer of MRT into a hospital-based clinical environment. Intensive research in recent years has resulted in practical solutions to most of the technical challenges in MRT. Treatment planning, dosimetry and patient safety systems at synchrotrons have matured to a point that first veterinary and clinical studies in MRT are within reach. Should these studies confirm the promising results of pre-clinical studies, the authors are confident that MRT will become an effective new radiotherapy option for certain patients.

Identifying optimal clinical scenarios for synchrotron microbeam radiation therapy: A treatment planning study.

PURPOSE: Synchrotron Microbeam Radiation Therapy (MRT) is a pre-clinical modality characterised by spatial dose fractionation on a microscopic scale. Treatment planning studies using clinical datasets have not yet been conducted. Our aim was to investigate MRT dose-distributions in scenarios refractory to conventional treatment and to identify optimal settings for a future Phase I trial. METHODS: MRT plans were generated for seven scenarios where re-irradiation was performed clinically. A hybrid algorithm, combining Monte Carlo and convolution-based methods, was used for dose-calculation. The valley dose to organs at risk had to respect the single fraction tolerance doses achieved in the corresponding re-irradiation plans. The resultant peak dose and the peak-to-valley dose ratio (PVDR) at the tumour target volume were assessed. RESULTS: Peak doses greater than 80 Gy in a single fraction, and PVDRs greater than 10, could be achieved for plans with small (<35 cm3) or shallow volumes, particularly recurrent glioblastoma, head and neck tumours, and select loco-regionally recurrent breast cancer sites. Treatment volume was a more important factor than treatment depth in determining the PVDR. The mean PVDR correlated strongly with the size of the target volume (rs = -0.70, p = 0.01). The PVDRs achieved in these clinical scenarios are considerably lower than those reported in previous pre-clinical studies. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that head and neck sites will be optimal scenarios for MRT.

Synchrotron microbeam radiotherapy evokes a different early tumor immunomodulatory response to conventional radiotherapy in EMT6.5 mammary tumors.

BACKGROUND: Synchrotron microbeam radiation therapy (MRT) is a new, evolving form of radiotherapy that has potential for clinical application. Several studies have shown in preclinical models that synchrotron MRT achieves equivalent tumor control to conventional radiotherapy (CRT) but with significantly reduced normal tissue damage. METHODS: To explore differences between these two modalities, we assessed the immune cell infiltrate into EMT6.5 mammary tumors after CRT and MRT. RESULTS: CRT induced marked increases in tumor-associated macrophages and neutrophils while there were no increases in these populations following MRT. In contrast, there were higher numbers of T cells in the MRT treated tumors. There were also increased levels of CCL2 by immunohistochemistry in tumors subjected to CRT, but not to MRT. Conversely, we found that MRT induced higher levels of pro-inflammatory genes in tumors than CRT. CONCLUSION: Our data are the first to demonstrate substantial differences in macrophage, neutrophil and T cell numbers in tumors following MRT versus CRT, providing support for the concept that MRT evokes a different immunomodulatory response in tumors compared to CRT.

Comparative toxicity of synchrotron and conventional radiation therapy based on total and partial body irradiation in a murine model.

Synchrotron radiation can facilitate novel radiation therapy modalities such as microbeam radiation therapy (MRT) and high dose-rate synchrotron broad-beam radiation therapy (SBBR). Both of these modalities have unique physical properties that could be exploited for an improved therapeutic effect. While pre-clinical studies report promising normal tissue sparing phenomena, systematic toxicity data are still required. Our objective was to characterise the toxicity of SBBR and MRT and to calculate equivalent doses of conventional radiation therapy (CRT). A dose-escalation study was performed on C57BLJ/6 mice using total body and partial body irradiations. Dose-response curves and TD50 values were subsequently calculated using PROBIT analysis. For SBBR at dose-rates of 37 to 41 Gy/s, we found no evidence of a normal tissue sparing effect relative to CRT. Our findings also show that the MRT valley dose, rather than the peak dose, best correlates with CRT doses for acute toxicity. Importantly, longer-term weight tracking of irradiated animals revealed more pronounced growth impairment following MRT compared to both SBBR and CRT. Overall, this study provides the first in vivo dose-equivalence data between MRT, SBBR and CRT and presents systematic toxicity data for a range of organs that can be used as a reference point for future pre-clinical work.

Phase contrast image guidance for synchrotron microbeam radiotherapy.

Recent image guidance developments for preclinical synchrotron microbeam radiotherapy represent a necessary step for future clinical translation of the technique. Image quality can be further improved using x-ray phase contrast, which is readily available at synchrotron facilities. We here describe a methodology for phase contrast image guidance at the Imaging and Medical Beamline at the Australian Synchrotron. Differential phase contrast is measured alongside conventional attenuation and used to improve the image quality. Post-processing based on the inverse Riesz transform is employed on the measured data to obtain noticeably sharper images. The procedure is extremely well suited for applications such as image guidance which require both visual assessment and sample alignment based on semi automatic image registration. Moreover, our approach can be combined with all other differential phase contrast imaging techniques, in all cases where a quantitative evaluation of the refractive index is not required.

The normal tissue effects of microbeam radiotherapy: What do we know, and what do we need to know to plan a human clinical trial?

Purpose Microbeam Radiotherapy (MRT) is a promising pre-clinical cancer therapy which represents a radical departure from the radiobiological principles of conventional radiotherapy (CRT). In order to translate MRT to human clinical trials, robust normal tissue toxicity data are required. This review summarizes the normal tissue effects reported by pre-clinical MRT animal studies and compares these data to clinical recommendations in CRT. Conclusion Few pre-clinical studies are specifically designed to evaluate the dose-response of normal tissue to MRT. However, it remains clear that a range of normal tissues can tolerate peak MRT doses at least an order of magnitude higher than CRT. Furthermore, the dose deposited in the valley regions, predominantly determined by microbeam spacing, has a greater influence on the normal tissue response to MRT compared to the peak regions. The development of a new normal tissue complication probability model for MRT, in conjunction with a treatment planning system, will be pivotal in the collection of robust normal tissue toxicity data and the translation of MRT to clinical use.

In vitro study of genes and molecular pathways differentially regulated by synchrotron microbeam radiotherapy.

The aim of this study was to identify genes and molecular pathways differentially regulated by synchrotron-generated microbeam radiotherapy (MRT) versus conventional broadbeam radiotherapy (CRT) in vitro using cultured EMT6.5 cells. We hypothesized (based on previous findings) that gene expression and molecular pathway changes after MRT are different from those seen after CRT. We found that at 24 h postirradiation, MRT exerts a broader regulatory effect on multiple pathways than CRT. MRT regulated those pathways involved in gene transcription, translation initiation, macromolecule metabolism, oxidoreductase activity and signaling transduction in a different manner compared to CRT. We also found that MRT/CRT alone, or when combined with inflammatory factor lipopolysaccharide, upregulated expression of Ccl2, Ccl5 or Csf2, which are involved in host immune cell recruitment. Our findings demonstrated differences in the molecular pathway for MRT versus CRT in the cultured tumor cells, and were consistent with the idea that radiation plays a role in recruiting tumor-associated immune cells to the tumor. Our results also suggest that a combination of MRT/CRT with a treatment targeting CCL2 or CSF2 could repress the tumor-associated immune cell recruitment, delay tumor growth and/or metastasis and yield better tumor control than radiation alone.

An evaluation of dose equivalence between synchrotron microbeam radiation therapy and conventional broad beam radiation using clonogenic and cell impedance assays.

BACKGROUND: High-dose synchrotron microbeam radiation therapy (MRT) has shown the potential to deliver improved outcomes over conventional broadbeam (BB) radiation therapy. To implement synchrotron MRT clinically for cancer treatment, it is necessary to undertake dose equivalence studies to identify MRT doses that give similar outcomes to BB treatments. AIM: To develop an in vitro approach to determine biological dose equivalence between MRT and BB using two different cell-based assays. METHODS: The acute response of tumour and normal cell lines (EMT6.5, 4T1.2, NMuMG, EMT6.5ch, 4T1ch5, SaOS-2) to MRT (50-560 Gy) and BB (1.5-10 Gy) irradiation was investigated using clonogenic and real time cell impedance sensing (RT-CIS)/xCELLigence assays. MRT was performed using a lattice of 25 or 50 µm-wide planar, polychromatic kilovoltage X-ray microbeams with 200 µm peak separation. BB irradiations were performed using a Co60 teletherapy unit or a synchrotron radiation source. BB doses that would generate biological responses similar to MRT were calculated by data interpolation and verified by clonogenic and RT-CIS assays. RESULTS: For a given cell line, MRT equivalent BB doses identified by RT-CIS/xCELLigence were similar to those identified by clonogenic assays. Dose equivalence between MRT and BB were verified in vitro in two cell lines; EMT6.5ch and SaOS-2 by clonogenic assays and RT-CIS/xCELLigence. We found for example, that BB doses of 3.4±0.1 Gy and 4.40±0.04 Gy were radiobiologically equivalent to a peak, microbeam dose of 112 Gy using clonogenic and RT-CIS assays respectively on EMT6.5ch cells. CONCLUSION: Our data provides the first determination of biological dose equivalence between BB and MRT modalities for different cell lines and identifies RT-CIS/xCELLigence assays as a suitable substitute for clonogenic assays. These results will be useful for the safe selection of MRT doses for future veterinary and clinical trials.

Microbeam-irradiated tumour tissue possesses a different infrared absorbance profile compared to broad beam and sham-irradiated tissue.

PURPOSE: To investigate biochemical changes in mouse tumour tissue following Microbeam Radiation Therapy (MRT) and Broad Beam (BB) irradiation using synchrotron Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) microspectroscopy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Synchrotron FTIR microspectroscopy was carried out on mouse tumour sections previously irradiated with BB (11, 22 or 44 Gy), MRT (560 Gy in-beam, 25 µm wide, 200 µm peak separation) or sham-irradiation (0 Gy) from mice culled 4 hours post-irradiation. RESULTS: MRT and BB-irradiated tumour sections showed clear chemical shifts in spectral bands corresponding to functional group vibrations in protein (1654-1630 cm(-1)), lipid (~1470, 1463 cm(-1)) and nucleic acid (1130-1050 cm(-1)). MRT peak and valley regions showed virtually identical absorbance patterns in protein and lipid regions. However, we observed chemical shifts corresponding to the nucleic acid region (1120-1050 cm(-1)) between the peak and valley dose regions. Chemical maps produced from integrating absorbance bands of interest over the scanned tumour area did not reveal any microbeam paths. CONCLUSIONS: The lack of difference between MRT peak and valley irradiated areas suggests a holistic tissue response to MRT that occurs within 4 h, and might be the first evidence for a mechanism by which MRT kills the whole tumour despite only a small percentage receiving peak irradiation.

Reference dosimetry at the Australian Synchrotron's imaging and medical beamline using free-air ionization chamber measurements and theoretical predictions of air kerma rate and half value layer.

PURPOSE: Novel, preclinical radiotherapy modalities are being developed at synchrotrons around the world, most notably stereotactic synchrotron radiation therapy and microbeam radiotherapy at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble, France. The imaging and medical beamline (IMBL) at the Australian Synchrotron has recently become available for preclinical radiotherapy and imaging research with clinical trials, a distinct possibility in the coming years. The aim of this present study was to accurately characterize the synchrotron-generated x-ray beam for the purposes of air kerma-based absolute dosimetry. METHODS: The authors used a theoretical model of the energy spectrum from the wiggler source and validated this model by comparing the transmission through copper absorbers (0.1-3.0 mm) against real measurements conducted at the beamline. The authors used a low energy free air ionization chamber (LEFAC) from the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency and a commercially available free air chamber (ADC-105) for the measurements. The dimensions of these two chambers are different from one another requiring careful consideration of correction factors. RESULTS: Measured and calculated half value layer (HVL) and air kerma rates differed by less than 3% for the LEFAC when the ion chamber readings were corrected for electron energy loss and ion recombination. The agreement between measured and predicted air kerma rates was less satisfactory for the ADC-105 chamber, however. The LEFAC and ADC measurements produced a first half value layer of 0.405 ± 0.015 and 0.412 ± 0.016 mm Cu, respectively, compared to the theoretical prediction of 0.427 ± 0.012 mm Cu. The theoretical model based upon a spectrum calculator derived a mean beam energy of 61.4 keV with a first half value layer of approximately 30 mm in water. CONCLUSIONS: The authors showed in this study their ability to verify the predicted air kerma rate and x-ray attenuation curve on the IMBL using a simple experimental method, namely, HVL measurements. The HVL measurements strongly supports the x-ray beam spectrum, which in turn has a profound effect on x-ray dosimetry.