Examination of bidirectional relationships between fear of negative evaluation and weight/shape concerns over 3 years: A longitudinal cohort study of Australian adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: Adolescents commonly experience both fear of negative evaluation and weight/shape concerns. However, evidence concerning the prospective associations between these constructs during adolescence is limited. The current study examined the bidirectional relationships between fear of negative evaluation and weight/shape concerns over a 3-year period in adolescents. METHOD: Australian high school students (n = 2073; 55% girls) completed self-report measures at three timepoints, each 1 year apart. RESULTS: Findings showed a bidirectional relationship, whereby increases in fear of negative evaluation predicted exacerbated weight/shape concerns, and vice versa. Results point towards a vicious maintenance cycle between fear of negative evaluation and weight/shape concerns. DISCUSSION: Findings from the current study highlight the importance of considering both fear of negative evaluation and weight/shape concerns in the development of health promotion and prevention programs designed to reduce the occurrence and adverse effects of body dissatisfaction or improve general mental health. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Many adolescents experience some level of fear of negative evaluation (i.e., worry about being judged by others) and worry about their weight and/or shape. This study examined the prospective relationship between both constructs. Findings showed a bidirectional relationship, whereby higher fear of negative evaluation predicted increased weight/shape concerns, and vice versa. Programs designed to reduce body dissatisfaction might be improved by targeting both fear of negative evaluation and weight/shape concerns.

Use of Legal Appearance- and Performance-Enhancing Drugs and Substances: Findings from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors.

BACKGROUND: Use of appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs and substances (APEDS) is common among adolescent and young adults. Many APEDS are legally sold "over-the-counter," however research has documented contamination of legal APEDS and many adverse effects of use. Despite this, little research has been conducted on legal APEDS use in Canada, particularly regarding the prevalence and sociodemographic predictors of use, which was the aim of this study. METHODS: Data from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors (N = 2,731) were analyzed. Prevalence and frequency of use of 10 common APEDS in the past 12 months were estimated overall and across genders. Multiple modified Poisson regression analyses were conducted to determine the sociodemographic predictors of APEDS use. RESULTS: Overall, use of caffeine was most common among the sample (71.3%), along with protein bars (63.4%), and whey protein powders or protein shakes (63.1%). Boys and men reported greater prevalence of use of eight of the 10 APEDS, with the exception of diuretics or water pills and probiotics, compared to girls and women and transgender/gender non-confirming participants. Over three quarters (82.5%) of boys and men reported use of whey protein powders or protein shakes and 50.3% reported use of creatine monohydrate. Use of APEDS varied based on several key sociodemographic identifiers. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to document legal APEDS use among a sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults, providing important implications for health care and policymaking professionals. Further research is needed to gain greater insight into APEDS use among Canadian young people.

The Somatomorphic Matrix-Female: More evidence for the validity of bidimensional figural rating scales for women.

Our study aimed to develop and provide a preliminary psychometric validation of the Somatomorphic Matrix-Female (SM-F), a new bidimensional female figural rating scale which can be used to gauge actual and desired levels of both body fat and muscularity in a consolidated measure, as well as providing an index of actual-desired body discrepancy based on these measures. Across two studies undergraduate women (n Study 1 = 481; n Study 2 = 391) completed the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire, the Body Shape Questionnaire-34, and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (Study 1) and the Drive for Thinness Scale and the Drive for Muscularity Scale (Study 2), as well as the SM-F. Overall, the SM-F demonstrated sound content, concurrent, and convergent validity for actual and desired body fat, actual and desired muscularity, and their respective discrepancy scores.

Use of appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs and substances is associated with eating disorder symptomatology among U.S. college students.

PURPOSE: Body ideals for both men and women are continuing to emphasize muscularity and leanness, which has resulted in the high prevalence of appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs and substances (APEDS) use, particularly among young men. Overall, little research has investigated the individual associations between specific APEDS use and eating disorder symptomatology, including among the high-risk population of young adult college students, which was the aim of this study. METHODS: Data from the 2020-2021 Healthy Minds Study (N = 7394) were analyzed. Five indicators of lifetime APEDS use were assessed, and a cumulative sum score was constructed. Eating disorder symptomatology was assessed via the SCOFF questionnaire. A total of 14 modified Poisson regression analyses were estimated to determine the association between APEDS use and a positive eating disorder screen among women and men. RESULTS: Lifetime use of protein supplements and diuretics or water pills were associated with a positive eating disorder screen among both women and men, while use of non-steroid synthetic muscle enhancers was associated with a positive eating disorder screen among men and creatine supplement use was associated with a positive eating disorder screen among women. The risk of a positive eating disorder screen was highest among men who reported use of five APEDS in their lifetime. CONCLUSIONS: Lifetime use of APEDS is associated with eating disorder symptomatology among a national sample of U.S. college and university students. Prevention and intervention efforts are needed to address the link between these potentially harmful behaviors. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

Compulsive exercise among college students: 5-year time trends in prevalence and demographic, substance use, and mental health correlates.

PURPOSE: To provide 5-year time trends in prevalence and demographic, substance use, and mental health correlates of compulsive exercise among a national sample of college men and women. METHODS: We analyzed 4 academic survey years (2016-2020; N = 8251) of the national (USA) Healthy Minds Study. Compulsive exercise was measured by self-report of any occurrence of "compulsive" exercise in the past 4 weeks. Unadjusted prevalence of compulsive exercise in the past 4 weeks was estimated across the 4 survey years by sex. Multiple logistic regression analyses were conducted among the pooled sample and stratified by sex to estimate the associations between compulsive exercise in the past 4 weeks and demographic, substance use, and mental health correlates. RESULTS: Among the pooled sample, 11% (95% confidence interval [CI] 9.60-12.42%) of men and 17% (95% CI 15.86-18.24%) of women reported compulsive exercise in the past 4 weeks. Prevalence across the 4 survey years remained stable among men and women. Higher body mass index was associated with greater odds of any compulsive exercise in the past 4 weeks among men, while any sports participation was associated with greater odds of any compulsive exercise in the past 4 weeks among women. Compulsive exercise in the past 4 weeks was associated with greater odds of all mental health symptoms and illicit drug use among men and women, and higher odds of alcohol use among women. CONCLUSION: Compulsive exercise is relatively common among college men and women and is associated with substance use behaviors and poor mental health symptoms. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

"Bulking and cutting" among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults.

PURPOSE: First, to characterize the prevalence and incidence of "bulk" and "cut" cycles among Canadian adolescents and young adults. Second, to determine the associations between bulk and cut cycle engagement and drive for muscularity and eating disorder and muscle dysmorphia psychopathology. METHODS: Data were from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors (2021; N = 2762), a national study of Canadian adolescents and young adults aged 16-30 years (M = 22.9, SD = 3.9). Prevalence and mean incidence of bulk and cut cycles in both the past 12 months and 30 days were estimated. Modified Poisson regressions were estimated to determine the associations between bulk and cut cycle engagement and levels of drive for muscularity and eating disorder and muscle dysmorphia psychopathology. RESULTS: The sample comprised of 53.5% women, 38.4% men, and 8.1% transgender/gender non-conforming (TGNC) individuals. Nearly half (48.9%) of men and one in five women (21.2%) and TGNC (21.9%) participants reported bulk and cut cycles in the past 12 months. TGNC participants and women reported a greater mean number of bulk and cut cycles completed compared to men. Engagement in bulk and cut cycles was associated with stronger drive for muscularity across the sample, and more severe eating disorder and muscle dysmorphia psychopathology among men and women. CONCLUSION: Findings underscore the common incidence and accompanying psychopathology of bulk and cut cycles among a community sample of adolescents and young adults in Canada, indicating the need for future research, as well as clinical and public health efforts. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

Psychological Well-Being of Australian Actors and Performing Artists: Life Satisfaction and Negative Affect.

BACKGROUND: Anecdotal evidence and media reports suggest that actors and other performing artists experience high levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. However, no empirical study has examined the psychological well-being of this professional group. OBJECTIVE: The Australian Actors' Wellbeing Study (AWS) was conducted to examine the general wellbeing of Australian actors and performing artists. The present paper, reporting on data from the AWS, focuses on two aspects of respondents' psychological well-being: life satisfaction and the experience of negative affect. METHODS: An online survey including several questionnaires was distributed to the Equity Foundation membership representing Australian actors. We report results from the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) and examine their associations with respondents' sociodemographic and occupational background, including their relationship status and any relationship stress, income from performing, and time taken away from performing. RESULTS: A sample of 782 Australian actors responded to the survey, with 582 participants completing the DASS and 568 the SWLS. Participants reported lower levels of life satisfaction and higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress than found in the Australian general population. Being in a relationship was associated with better psychological well-being; however, work stress often impacted negatively on relationships. Income had little association with psychological well-being, unless the respondent felt under financial stress. Respondents who took extended periods of time away from performing reported less life satisfaction and more depression than others. CONCLUSION: Australian actors may be at a high risk for poor psychological health. Further research is necessary to establish causality among the variables we examined and to investigate protective factors that may increase well-being in the context of the performing arts industry.

Emotion dysregulation across the span of eating disorder symptoms: Findings from a community sample of adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: Emotion dysregulation is proposed as a key factor within eating disorder pathology. However, less is known about specific emotion regulation difficulties experienced by adolescents with varying levels of eating disorders symptoms. The present study examined the relationship between eating disorder behaviors and specific facets of emotion dysregulation, and differences in emotion dysregulation between eating disorder diagnostic groups. METHOD: Participants were 2,783 adolescents, 11-19 years (M = 14 years, 9 months, SD = 1 year, 6 months), who completed self-report measures as part of the EveryBODY study. Adolescents were identified as not having eating disorder symptoms (n = 2,122) or meeting diagnostic criteria for symptoms of specific eating disorder, including: anorexia nervosa or atypical anorexia nervosa (n = 57), bulimia nervosa (n = 136), binge-eating disorder (n = 57), other specified feeding or eating disorder characterized by binge eating or purging (n = 381), and unspecified feeding or eating disorder (n = 30). RESULTS: Binge eating, driven exercise, and fasting were each uniquely associated with emotion dysregulation, whereas purging was not. Similar findings were obtained within specific domains of emotion dysregulation. Findings from diagnostic groups showed a significant main effect of diagnosis on overall emotion dysregulation and most domains of emotion dysregulation. Adolescents with eating disorder symptoms consistently reported higher emotion dysregulation compared to those without these symptoms. DISCUSSION: Findings indicate that emotion dysregulation is a key factor across eating disorder pathology, and potential treatment target across the spectrum of eating disorder diagnoses in adolescents.

Factor structure and psychometric properties of the Muscularity-Oriented Eating Test in university women in Australia.

OBJECTIVE: Toned muscularity continues to emerge as a salient aspect of women's body image. However, there is a dearth of research investigating the potentially maladaptive eating practices and related cognitions that accompany the drive for muscularity in women. This may be attributable to the limited empirical and clinical attention previously given to muscularity-oriented disordered eating and, accordingly, the lack of validated measures assessing these concerns. To address this knowledge gap, our study aimed to provide a preliminary evaluation of the factor structure and core psychometric properties of a recently developed measure of muscularity-oriented disordered eating, the Muscularity-Oriented Eating Test (MOET), in university women in Australia. METHOD: Participants included 419 university women who completed the 15-item MOET and other self-report measures for validity evaluation as part of an online survey. Data from split-half samples were used to undertake an exploratory factor analysis and subsequent confirmatory factor analysis. RESULTS: Factor analytic results supported a briefer (12-item), one-factor scale in this sample of university women. The internal consistency reliability and validity (convergent and discriminant) of this 12-item unidimensional MOET was supported. DISCUSSION: Our study provides preliminary support for this modified MOET as a psychometrically sound self-report measure of muscularity-oriented disordered eating in university women in Australia, providing a useful tool for understanding maladaptive eating behaviors and cognitions concomitant to the pursuit of muscularity in this population.

Alcohol Use by Australian Actors and Performing Artists: A Preliminary Examination from the Australian Actors' Wellbeing Study.

BACKGROUND: Anecdotal and media reports suggest that actors and performing artists are vulnerable to high levels of alcohol use. However, little empirical research is available to document the extent and correlates of alcohol use amongst these artists, particularly in an Australian context. OBJECTIVE: This study investigated alcohol use in a sample of Australian actors and other performing artists and its associations with sociodemographic background, psychological wellbeing, and work stress. METHODS: An online survey was distributed to the Equity Foundation membership representing Australian actors and performing artists. The survey included questions on sociodemographic and occupational background and psychological wellbeing (DASS-21), as well as the AUDIT questionnaire to assess self-reported alcohol consumption. A sample of 620 performing artists responded to the survey, a large majority of whom were actors. RESULTS: Australian actors and performing artists appear to consume alcohol at levels that are higher than those found in the general Australian population. About 40% of men and 31% of women were classified as drinking alcohol at potentially harmful or hazardous levels. Alcohol use was not strongly associated with age, education, or income, but it had a relationship with poorer psychological wellbeing. About 50% of respondents reported that their alcohol drinking was related to work stress as a performer. This perception was more pronounced amongst those performers who reported drinking at harmful levels. CONCLUSIONS: Australian actors and performing artists appear to be an at-risk population for harmful or hazardous alcohol use.

Negative psychological correlates of the pursuit of muscularity among women.

OBJECTIVE: There is increasing public and scientific focus on women's pursuit of a muscular and toned appearance. However, the psychological correlates of women's drive for muscularity are currently unclear. Therefore, we examined the associations of drive for muscularity with four important negative psychological indices among women: eating disorder (ED) symptoms, and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. METHOD: A sample of 221 university women completed an online survey that included measures assessing the aforementioned constructs. RESULTS: Drive for muscularity evidenced positive associations with all negative psychological indices, except for anxiety. Muscularity-oriented attitudes, as opposed to behaviors, demonstrated the strongest associations with ED and depression symptoms. DISCUSSION: Our findings make a novel contribution to the scant literature by demonstrating that women who endorse attitudes and/or behaviors geared toward attaining the female muscular ideal may be susceptible to experiencing ED symptoms and negative emotional states. This study provides preliminary evidence that muscularity-oriented attitudes, in particular, may be a promising target for the treatment of EDs and negative emotional states in women with a preoccupation toward muscularity.

Eating Disorder Symptoms in Australian Actors and Performing Artists.

AIMS: Anecdotal evidence suggests that actors and other performing artists are under great pressure to conform to idealized appearances and body types. The pursuit of such appearances may trigger eating disorder symptoms, such as unhealthy attitudes towards body weight and shape. Thus far, there has been no dedicated empirical study of the prevalence of such problems in Australian actors and performing artists specifically. Therefore, this study sought to examine eating disorder symptomatology in Australian actors and performing artists. METHODS: An online survey was distributed to the Equity Foundation membership representing Australian actors and performing artists, of whom 573 individuals completed the survey. This survey gauged demographic information and eating disorder symptoms using the psychometrically validated Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale (EDDS). RESULTS: A large proportion of actors reported unhealthy attitudes such as 'feeling fat' even though they are of normal weight or underweight; reported an extreme fear of gaining weight; and evaluated their self-worth based on their body weight and shape, particularly women. Results also showed that 2.5% of women in the study met the diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa and 13% met diagnostic criteria for bulimia nervosa based on their scores on the EDDS. DISCUSSION: Performers may be a particularly at-risk population for the development and/or maintenance for a range of eating disorders.

"Life's too short to be small": An experimental exploration of the relationship between death anxiety and muscle dysmorphia symptoms.

Growing research demonstrates that death anxiety is strongly associated with numerous mental health conditions. It is possible that death anxiety may similarly contribute to behaviours associated with muscle dysmorphia (MD). The current pre-registered study examined this possibility in 322 young men with an interest in health and fitness. The mortality salience paradigm was used to experimentally examine whether reminders of death increased behaviours relevant to MD. Measures of MD symptoms and death anxiety were also completed by participants. Contrary to expectations, reminders of death did not significantly increase willingness to trial workout supplements, or dissatisfaction with current muscularity. Participants reminded of death reported lower intention to exercise in the near future, compared to the control condition. Moreover, death reminders did not lead to significantly larger portion sizes being chosen. However, in post-hoc analyses, men with high, but not low, MD symptoms did choose larger portions after being primed with death. Lastly, positive correlations were found between self-report measures of MD symptoms and two measures of death anxiety. Cumulatively, these results suggest that while fears of death may be associated with self-reported MD symptoms, they may not drive excessive exercise, nor body dissatisfaction in men.

The problem with confidence: too much and too little results in poorer achievement, inner conflict, and social inhibition.

Introduction: Confidence is defined as the feelings and thoughts people have during a task that result in judgments about their performance. Evidence suggests that confidence is trait-like, but thus far research on the relative match between confidence and accuracy has been primarily restricted to over-confidence effects, and subject to the methodological flaws involved with using difference scores. We sought to answer an exploratory question in this research, whether discrepancies in ability and confidence in either direction reliably predicted individual differences on a broad-spectrum and commercially available personality test, the California Psychological Inventory (CPI260). Methods: Participants were 220 employed adults who had previously taken the CPI260 for career development purposes. They were invited to complete a measure of cognitive ability and confidence in return for feedback on the same. Data were modeled using polynomial regression and response surface analysis, to determine whether and how CPI260 personality traits were associated with matches or mismatches between accuracy and confidence in the same test. Results: We identified negative curvilinear effects along the line of disagreement for four CPI260 scales, suggesting that both under- and over-confidence were associated with personality. Discussion: In contrast to our expectations, individuals who were under-confident and those who were over-confident had lower achievement potential, less social confidence, and more inner conflict than other individuals in this sample. Although preliminary, these findings suggest that both over-confident and under-confident individuals are aware of potential weaknesses that impede their functioning.

Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use: Patterns of Use among a National Sample of Canadian Adolescents and Young Adults.

Background: Androgenic-anabolic steroid (AAS) use is relatively common among international recreational and community samples and is associated with several deleterious side effects and health consequences that have not been studied recently among a large Canadian sample. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess and describe characteristics of AAS users compared to non-AAS users among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults. Methods: Data from 2,774 adolescents and young adults from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors were analyzed. Participants were recruited via social media advertisements and completed the survey online. Survey items measured sociodemographics, AAS use, AAS side effects, motives for AAS use, AAS administration, body satisfaction, other illicit substance use, mental health, and violence involvement. Results: Among the overall sample, 1.6% of participants reported lifetime AAS use, with the majority of users being White, heterosexual males. Most users strived to gain weight, with main motives for AAS use including increased muscularity and strength, and improved appearance. Most AAS users were satisfied with their body compared to non-users. Approximately one in five users had AAS dependence and experienced multiple adverse side effects. Few differences between users and non-users in self-reported mental health were found. Conclusion: Findings indicate that AAS use among a community sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults is an important health issue, particularly given the relatively high occurrence of AAS dependence and adverse side effects reported by users. Findings support the need for education and intervention efforts from healthcare professionals. Further investigations among Canadian AAS users may provide more insight regarding the unique supports these individuals require.

Muscle dysmorphia symptomatology among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults.

The aim of this study was to describe muscle dysmorphia (MD) symptomatology among a large, diverse, and national sample of adolescents and young adults in Canada. Data from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors (N = 2256) were analyzed. MD symptomatology was assessed using the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI). Men (mean [M] = 33.9, standard deviation [SD] = 8.6) reported significantly greater overall MD symptomatology compared to women (M = 30.1, SD = 7.3) and transgender/gender non-conforming (TGNC; M = 31.5, SD = 7.6) participants. Similarly, the prevalence of clinical MD risk was also highest among men (25.7 %). In regression analyses, participants who identified as South Asian (B 1.97, 95 % confidence interval [CI] 0.41, 3.52) or Middle Eastern (B 2.92, 95 % CI 0.50,5.35), compared to White participants, or identified as gay or lesbian (B 2.65, 95 % CI 1.19, 4.10), compared to heterosexual participants, had greater MD symptomatology. Findings are the first to describe the MD symptomatology among Canadian adolescents and young adults. Health care and public health professionals should be aware of the overall high occurrence of MD symptomatology in this sample, and future research is needed to continue to describe MD among Canadian young people.

Weight gain attempts and substance use behaviors among adults across five countries.

Weight gain attempts are common among adolescents, yet a paucity of research has explored these behaviors among adults, particularly in relation to substance use behaviors. To address this gap in the literature, pooled data from the 2018 and 2019 International Food Policy Study (N = 42,108) were analyzed. The association of weight gain attempts in the past 12 months with four important and relatively common substance use behaviors (alcohol use, binge-drinking, cigarette smoking, marijuana use) was examined using multiple modified Poisson regression analyses that adjusted for theoretically relevant covariates. Among men and women, weight gain attempts were associated with a higher likelihood of cigarette smoking in the past 30 days, marijuana use in the past 12 months, and binge-drinking one or more times per month in the past 12 months among men only. Among women, weight gain attempts were associated with a lower likelihood of alcohol use one or more times per month in the past 12 months. Our findings contribute to the literature demonstrating that substance use behaviors are more prevalent among adults who report weight gain attempts in a large international sample.

Characterizing cheat meals among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults.

BACKGROUND: "Cheat meals", described as brief eating episodes that depart from established dietary practices to consume prohibited foods, represent a novel and increasingly common eating behavior with particular salience in adolescence and young adulthood. However, knowledge gaps remain regarding the frequency and characterization of foods and calories consumed during cheat meals, and their associations with eating disorder behaviors and psychopathology. Thus, the aims of this study were to delineate engagement in cheat meals among a large, national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults. METHODS: Participants (N = 2,717) were from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors. Frequencies of engagement in cheat meals, and associated foods and calories consumed, in the past 12 months and 30 days were determined. The associations between engagement in cheat meals and eating disorder behaviors and psychopathology were determined using modified Poisson regression analyses. RESULTS: Engagement in cheat meals in the past 12 months was highest among men (60.9%) compared to women (53.7%) and transgender/gender non-conforming (TGNC; 52.5%) participants. Cheat meals consisting between 1,000 and 1,499 cal were those most frequently reported among all participants. Mean number of cheat meals in the past 12 months was equivalent to > 1 per week, which was similar to engagement in the past 30 days. Finally, engagement in cheat meals in the past 12 months and 30 days was associated with patterns of eating disorder behaviors and psychopathology among all participants, including binge-eating-related behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: This study further characterized and extended knowledge of cheat meal engagement across genders, aligning with prior research by demonstrating that engagement is associated with greater eating disorder psychopathology. Findings from this study add to the growing characterization of the novel behavioral phenomenon of cheat meals. Specifically, over half of adolescents and young adults across all 13 provinces and territories in Canada reported engaging in > 1 cal dense cheat meal per week, over the past 12 months. Despite the normalization and promotion of cheat meal engagement among the general public and unique fitness communities, engagement in this behavior is linked to greater eating disorder behaviors and psychopathology, including binge-eating episodes. Our findings emphasize the need for further research, public awareness, and clinical interventions aimed at addressing this potentially harmful eating behavior.

The 'not-so-healthy' appearance pursuit? Disentangling unique associations of female drive for toned muscularity with disordered eating and compulsive exercise.

Today, many women are driven to subscribe to a more athletically oriented appearance ideal hallmarked by muscle tone (referred to as athletic- or fit-looking). However, the constellation of unhealthy eating and exercise behaviors that may accompany the pursuit of toned muscularity among women is not yet well characterized. To address this knowledge gap, our study evaluated the associations among the female drive for toned muscularity and both thinness-oriented disordered eating behaviors (e.g., dietary restriction) and muscularity-oriented disordered eating behaviors (e.g., excessive scrutiny of macro-nutrient values of food), as well as dimensions of compulsive exercise. Participants were 388 Australian undergraduate women who completed an online questionnaire including self-report measures of said constructs. Hierarchical regression models were used to determine whether the drive for toned muscularity accounted for unique variance in eating and exercise behaviors after adjusting for theoretically relevant covariates. Results indicated independent relationships between the drive for toned muscularity and several facets of thinness- and muscularity-oriented disordered eating, as well as compulsive exercise (e.g., exercise rigidity). Our findings further contribute to an emerging literature illustrating that women driven to attain a toned appearance may be vulnerable to engaging in a wide range of maladaptive eating and exercise practices.

Gender compatibility and drive for muscularity among adolescent boys: Examining the indirect effect of emotion regulation difficulties.

The drive for muscularity continues to be a prominent concern among adolescent boys. However, it is unknown how gender compatibility (gender typicality and gender contentedness) relates to this pursuit. The present study sought to examine the link between gender compatibility and drive for muscularity among male adolescents, and whether this is partially accounted for by emotion regulation difficulties. Participants were 903 male adolescents, aged 11-19 years, who completed self-report measures as part of the EveryBODY study. Using path analysis, a proposed mediation model was assessed, testing an indirect pathway of gender compatibility and drive for muscularity through emotion regulation difficulties. Findings showed an indirect pathway between gender compatibility and drive for muscularity through emotion regulation difficulties. That is, boys who were more content with their male gender and believed they were typical of their gender reported fewer emotion regulation difficulties and, in turn, exhibited a lower drive for muscularity. Findings support theoretical perspectives integrating masculinity and muscularity in boys, in that those who feel less compatible with their masculinity could be susceptible to developing a greater drive for muscularity to regulate distress deriving from perceptions of not being sufficiently masculine. This study sets the groundwork for future longitudinal studies.