Emergency Department Health Care Utilization and Opioid Administration Among Pediatric Patients With Sickle Cell Vasoocclusive Pain Crisis and Coexisting Mental Health Illness.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether patients with sickle cell disease (SCD) who present to the emergency department (ED) with vasoocclusive pain crises (VOC), and have coexisting mental health (MH) diagnoses, are more likely to have increased health care utilization and more frequent opioid administration compared with those without coexisting MH conditions. METHODS: This is a retrospective study of patients aged 5 to 18 years with SCD who presented to a tertiary care ED with a primary complaint of VOC between January 1, 2013, and December 31, 2017. We excluded patients with sickle cell trait and without a pain management plan in the electronic medical record. Outcomes included ED length of stay (LOS), admission rate, and opioid administration in the ED. Morphine equivalents were used to standardize opioid dosing. Mann-Whitney U and χ2 tests were used for univariate analysis. Multivariable logistic was performed for categorical and continuous outcomes, respectively, after adjusting for confounding factors. RESULTS: We identified 978 encounters. We excluded 196 without a pain management plan and one with inaccurate ED LOS, resulting in 781 encounters (148 patients) for analysis. Coexisting MH diagnoses were present in 75.0% of encounters, with anxiety (83.0%) and depressive disorders (55.9%) being most common. Compared with SCD patients without coexisting MH diagnoses, those with coexisting MH diagnoses had significantly longer ED LOS (252 ± 139 minutes vs 232 ± 145 minutes, P = 0.03), longer median hospital LOS (1.4 ± 3.2 days vs 0.3 ± 2.4 days, P < 0.001) in univariate analyses, but these differences were no longer significant in adjusted regression models. Patients with coexisting MH diagnoses had higher frequency of opioid administration in the ED (85.6% vs 71.4%, P < 0.0001) and higher odds of receiving opioids (adjusted odds ratio, 2.07; 95% confidence interval, 1.28-3.33). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with SCD and coexisting MH diagnoses presenting with VOC have greater odds of receiving opioids compared with patients with SCD without coexisting MH diagnoses. Our results indicate a need for more MH resources in this vulnerable population and may help guide future management strategies.

Parental Childhood Adversity and Pediatric Emergency Department Utilization: A Pilot Study.

OBJECTIVES: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) including physical, emotional, or sexual abuse; neglect; and/or exposure to household instability have been associated with adult emergency department utilization, but the impact of parental ACEs on pediatric emergency department (PED) utilization has not been studied. The primary aim was to determine if parental ACEs impact resource utilization as measured by (1) frequency of PED utilization, (2) acuity of PED visits, and (3) 72-hour PED return rates. The secondary aim was to determine if resilience interacts with the impact of parental ACEs on PED utilization. METHODS: This study is a cross-sectional survey using previously validated measures of ACEs, resiliency, and social determinants of health screening. Surveys were administered from October 17, 2019, to November 27, 2019, via iPad by research assistants in our institution's PEDs. Survey responses were linked to data abstracted from the electronic health record. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize our study population. Pearson correlation was used to identify correlation between ACEs, social determinants of health, and PED utilization measures. RESULTS: A total of 251 parents had complete data. Parental ACEs were positively associated with frequency of PED visits (incidence rate ratio, 1.013). In addition, high levels of parental resilience attenuated the association between parental ACEs and the number of severe acuity visits and were associated with fewer 72-hour return visits (incidence rate ratio, 0.49). CONCLUSIONS: Parental ACEs appear to be positively associated with frequency of PED utilization and inversely associated with higher-acuity PED visits and parental resiliency.

Organ Donation Authorization After Brain Death Among Patients Admitted to PICUs in the United States, 2009-2018.

OBJECTIVES: To identify trends in and factors associated with pediatric organ donation authorization after brain death. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study of data from Virtual Pediatric Systems, LLC (Los Angeles, CA). SETTING: Data from 123 PICUs reporting to Virtual Pediatric Systems from 2009 to 2018. PATIENTS: Patients less than 19 years old eligible for organ donation after brain death. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Of 2,777 eligible patients, 1,935 (70%) were authorized for organ donation; the authorization rate remained unchanged over time (ptrend = 0.22). In a multivariable logistic regression model, hospitalizations lasting greater than 7 days had lower odds of authorization (adjusted odds ratio, 0.5; p < 0.001 vs ≤ 1 d) and White patients had higher odds than other race/ethnicity groups. Authorization was higher for trauma-related encounters (adjusted odds ratio, 1.5; p < 0.001) and when donation was discussed with an organ procurement organization coordinator (adjusted odds ratio, 1.7; p < 0.001). Of 123 hospitals, 35 (28%) met or exceeded a 75% organ donation authorization target threshold; these hospitals more often had an organ procurement organization coordinator discussing organ donation (85% vs 72% of encounters; p < 0.001), but no difference was observed by PICU bed size. CONCLUSIONS: Organ donation authorization after brain death among PICU patients was associated with length of stay, race/ethnicity, and trauma-related encounter, and authorization rates were higher when an organ procurement organization coordinator was involved in the donation discussion. This study identified factors that could inform initiatives to improve the authorization process and increase pediatric organ donation rates.

Utilization of the electrocardiogram in the pediatric emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: Review pediatric electrocardiogram (ECG) result severity classification and describe the utilization of ECG testing, and rate of clinically significant results, in the pediatric emergency department (PED). METHODS: This was a review of patients ≤18 years who had an ECG performed in a tertiary children's hospital PED 2005-2017. Using established guidelines and expert consultation, ECG results were categorized: Class 0 = normal, Class I = mild abnormality (no cardiology follow-up), Class II = moderate abnormality (cardiology follow-up), Class III = severe abnormality (immediate intervention). Chi-square tests were used to examine differences between patients with clinically insignificant (Class 0/I) and clinically significant (Class II/III) results. Multivariable regression was used to examine factors associated with clinically significant results. RESULTS: 16,147 unique PED encounters with ECG performed were included for analysis. The most common ECG indications were chest pain (32.5%), syncope (22.0%), arrhythmia (11.8%), toxicology/ingestion (9.4%), and seizure (5.7%). Overall, 12.7% (n = 2056) of ECGs had clinically significant (Class II/III) results, and only 2.0% (n = 325) had severe abnormality (Class III) that would require immediate intervention or cardiologist input. Factors associated with increased odds of clinically significant ECG were age ≤ 1 year (OR = 1.20, 95% CI: 1.02-1.41), male (OR = 1.33, 95% CI: 1.20-1.46), and indications of arrhythmia (OR = 1.84, 95% CI: 1.59-2.13), cardiac (OR = 2.57, 95% CI: 1.99-3.31), blank indication (OR = 1.52, 95% CI: 1.17-1.98), and electrolyte abnormality (OR = 1.42, 95% CI: 1.03-1.95). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we provided a valuable review of ECG result severity classification in the pediatric population. We found that chest pain and syncope represented over half of all ECGs performed. We found that clinically significant results are rare in the pediatric population at 12.7% of all ECGs performed, and very few (2.0%) have severe abnormalities that would require immediate intervention. Those with increased odds of a clinically significant ECG include young patients ≤1 year of age, male patients, and certain ECG indications.

Emergency Department Visits for Pediatric Firearm Injuries by Trauma Center Type.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to characterize pediatric visits to emergency departments (EDs) for firearm injuries and examine differences by trauma center type. METHODS: Analyses included all patients younger than 19 years from the National Trauma Data Bank, years 2009 to 2014. Trauma centers were categorized as adult, mixed adult and pediatric, or pediatric based on certification level. Baseline characteristics were compared between subgroups using χ2 tests. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine risk of death. RESULTS: Of 466,403 pediatric ED visits, 21,416 (4.6%) resulted from a firearm injury. Most firearm injuries were treated at an adult (64.9%) or mixed trauma center (29.1%) and involved patients that were male (87.1%), in the 15- to 18-year age group (83.2%), and black or African American (61.3%). Most visits were for injuries resulting from assault (78.1%), followed by unintentional (12.6%) and self-inflicted (4.7%) injuries, undetermined intent (3.7%), and legal intervention (0.8%). Patients visiting EDs for firearm injuries had more than 7 times the odds of dying compared with patients with other injuries (odds ratio, 7.30; 95% confidence interval, 6.82-7.72), and firearm injuries were responsible for more than a quarter (26.1%) of the total pediatric deaths in the National Trauma Data Bank (n = 2866). Assault-related injuries resulted in the most deaths (n = 2010; 70.1%), but the case fatality rate was highest for self-inflicted (n = 453; 44.6%). CONCLUSION: We identified more than 20,000 firearm-related ED visits by pediatric patients from 2009 to 2014, averaging nearly 10 visits per day. Findings from this study can inform strategic planning in hospitals focused on preventing firearm injuries in children and adolescents.

Resuscitation With Ringer's Lactate Compared With Normal Saline for Pediatric Diabetic Ketoacidosis.

OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to describe the use of Ringer's lactate (LR) or normal saline (NS) for resuscitation among children with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and compare the effect of fluid type on cost, length of stay, and rate of cerebral edema (CE). METHODS: This is a retrospective study of 49,737 children aged 0 to 17 years with DKA between January 1, 2005, and September 30, 2015, using data from the Pediatric Health Information System. Treatment with LR or NS was identified. Our primary outcomes were total adjusted cost and length of stay. Our secondary outcome was CE rate per 1000 episodes. RESULTS: The majority of patients were treated with NS (n = 43,841 [88%]) compared with LR (n = 1762 [4%]) or both NS and LR (n = 4134 [8%]). Hospital-year-specific practice patterns were used to investigate the effect of fluid type across resuscitation fluid groups. Total adjusted cost was $1160 less (95% confidence interval, -1468 to -852), or -14.2%, for cases with any episode of LR compared with NS only. Length of stay was not different across groups. The rate of cerebral edema per 1000 episodes was 12.7 for cases with any episode of LR compared with 34.6 NS only (difference, -21.9; 95% confidence interval, -30.4 to -13.3). CONCLUSIONS: Ringer's lactate was infrequently used for resuscitation of pediatric DKA patients. However, resuscitation with LR compared with NS was associated with lower total cost and rates of CE. Further investigation using patient-level clinical and laboratory data is needed to evaluate factors that drive cost and risk of CE development with each fluid.

Risk Factors for Compartment Syndrome in Pediatric Trauma Patients.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to identify risk factors for compartment syndrome (CS) in pediatric trauma populations. METHODS: We included patients younger than 19 years treated at trauma centers contributing to the National Trauma Data Bank between 2009 and 2012. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the association between risk factors and the development of CS. The final model adjusted for age, sex, race, number of comorbidities, Glascow Coma Scale, Injury Severity Score, mechanism of injury, and fracture of the lower limb. RESULTS: A total of 341,238 patients were eligible for analysis, and 896 patients developed CS (0.3%). In adjusted regression models, older patients had significantly higher odds of CS compared with patients 1 years or younger (odds ratio [OR], 3.29 [95% confidence interval [CI], 1.29-8.37; 2-6 years]; OR, 7.55 [95% CI, 3.08-18.55 [7-12 years]; OR, 10.34 [95% CI, 4.26-25.09 [13-18 years]). Male patients had significantly increased odds of CS compared with female patients, as did patients with lower limb fractures compared with patients without lower limb fractures (OR, 1.93 [95% CI, 1.56-2.40]; OR, 7.61 [95% CI, 6.48-8.94]; respectively). Finally, patients with a firearm injury had higher odds of CS compared with other mechanisms of injury (OR, 3.51 [95% CI, 2.70-4.56]). CONCLUSIONS: Older pediatric trauma patients, male patients, and those with lower limb fractures and firearm injuries have increased odds of CS. Information on risk factors can be used to help identify patients most likely to develop CS, facilitating timely diagnosis and treatment.

Parasagittal vertex clots on head CT in infants with subdural hemorrhage as a predictor for abusive head trauma.

BACKGROUND: Abusive head trauma (AHT) is the most common cause of subdural hemorrhage (SDH) in infants younger than 12 months old. Clot formation in the parasagittal vertex seen on imaging has been associated with SDH due to AHT. There have been very few studies regarding these findings; to our knowledge, no studies including controls have been performed. OBJECTIVE: To describe parasagittal vertex clots on head computed tomography (CT) in infants with SDH and AHT compared to patients with SDH and accidental trauma, and to evaluate for parasagittal vertex clots in the absence of SDH in the setting of known accidental head trauma. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All infants younger than 12 months old with SDH present on CT scan were retrospectively identified from 2004 to 2014. Blinded, independent review of all CT scans for clot formation at the parasagittal vertex was performed by a pediatric neuroradiologist. RESULTS: Ninety-nine patients were eligible for analysis. Mean age was 4 months. Fifty-seven (57.6%) were male. Fifty-five (55.6%) patients were identified as having AHT and 22 (22.2%) had accidental trauma. Forty-five (81.2%) patients with AHT had parasagittal vertex clots present on CT scan compared to 8 (36.4%) patients with accidental trauma. Compared to patients without parasagittal vertex clots, those with parasagittal vertex clots were more likely to have AHT (66.2% vs. 32.3%, P=0.001), no known mechanism of injury (69.1% vs. 32.3%, P=0.015), retinal hemorrhage (75% vs. 35.5%, P=0.002) and hypoxic-ischemic changes (25% vs. 0%, P=0.002). Patients with parasagittal vertex clots have eight times the odds of AHT compared to patients without parasagittal vertex clots. Age-matched control patients who underwent head CT scan due to a history of accidental head injury without SDH were identified (n=87); no patient in the control group had parasagittal vertex clots. CONCLUSION: The finding of parasagittal vertex clots on CT scans should raise suspicion for abuse and prompt further investigation, especially in the setting of no known, uncertain or inconsistent mechanism of injury.

Adding Social Determinant Data Changes Children's Hospitals' Readmissions Performance.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether social determinants of health (SDH) risk adjustment changes hospital-level performance on the 30-day Pediatric All-Condition Readmission (PACR) measure and improves fit and accuracy of discharge-level models. STUDY DESIGN: We performed a retrospective cohort study of all hospital discharges meeting criteria for the PACR from 47 hospitals in the Pediatric Health Information database from January to December 2014. We built four nested regression models by sequentially adding risk adjustment factors as follows: chronic condition indicators (CCIs); PACR patient factors (age and sex); electronic health record-derived SDH (race, ethnicity, payer), and zip code-linked SDH (families below poverty level, vacant housing units, adults without a high school diploma, single-parent households, median household income, unemployment rate). For each model, we measured the change in hospitals' readmission decile-rank and assessed model fit and accuracy. RESULTS: For the 458 686 discharges meeting PACR inclusion criteria, in multivariable models, factors associated with higher discharge-level PACR measure included age <1 year, female sex, 1 of 17 CCIs, higher CCI count, Medicaid insurance, higher median household income, and higher percentage of single-parent households. Adjustment for SDH made small but significant improvements in fit and accuracy of discharge-level PACR models, with larger effect at the hospital level, changing decile-rank for 17 of 47 hospitals. CONCLUSIONS: We found that risk adjustment for SDH changed hospitals' readmissions rate rank order. Hospital-level changes in relative readmissions performance can have considerable financial implications; thus, for pay for performance measures calculated at the hospital level, and for research associated therewith, our findings support the inclusion of SDH variables in risk adjustment.

ICD Social Codes: An Underutilized Resource for Tracking Social Needs.

BACKGROUND: Social determinants of health (SDH) data collected in health care settings could have important applications for clinical decision-making, population health strategies, and the design of performance-based incentives and penalties. One source for cataloging SDH data is the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD). OBJECTIVE: To explore how SDH are captured with ICD Ninth revision SDH V codes in a national inpatient discharge database. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data come from the 2013 Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP) National Inpatient Sample, a national stratified sample of discharges from 4363 hospitals from 44 US states. We estimate the rate of ICD-9 SDH V code utilization overall and by patient demographics and payer categories. We additionally estimate the rate of SDH V code utilization for: (a) the 5 most common reasons for hospitalization; and (b) the 5 conditions with the highest rates of SDH V code utilization. RESULTS: Fewer than 2% of overall discharges in the National Inpatient Sample were assigned an SDH V code. There were statistically significant differences in the rate of overall SDH V code utilization by age categories, race/ethnicity, sex, and payer (all P<0.001). Nevertheless, SDH V codes were assigned to <7% of discharges in any demographic or payer subgroup. SDH V code utilization was highest for major diagnostic categories related to mental health and alcohol/substance use-related discharges. CONCLUSIONS: SDH V codes are infrequently utilized in inpatient settings for discharges other than those related to mental health and alcohol/substance use. Utilization incentives will likely need to be developed to realize the potential benefits of cataloging SDH information.

Higher Diet Quality in Adolescence and Dietary Improvements Are Related to Less Weight Gain During the Transition From Adolescence to Adulthood.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the previously validated A Priori Diet Quality Score (APDQS), and weight change among adolescents transitioning into young adulthood. STUDY DESIGN: Young people were recruited in middle/high schools and followed for 10 years. Participants reported diet and weight in 1999 (mean age, 15 years), 2004 (20 years), and 2009 (25 years). The analytic sample (n = 2656) had dietary intake assessments in 1999 and at least one other assessment. The APDQS (without alcoholic items) was based on 13 beneficial food groups, 12 adverse food groups, and 9 neutral food groups to capture aspects of Mediterranean/prudent diets, focusing on foods that are varied, based on nutritionally rich plants, and less processed. RESULTS: From mean age 15 to 25 years, mean (SD) weight increased from 61.0 (14.7) kg to 76.1 (18.8) kg, and APDQS increased from 43.1 (11.1) points to 45.6 (10.7) points. Within-person tracking correlation of the APDQS was 0.35 at mean age 15-20 years, increasing to 0.49 at 20-25 years. Independent of lifestyle factors and energy intake, a 15-point (IQR) higher APDQS in 1999 was associated with 1.5 kg (95% CI, 0.7-2.3 kg) less weight gain over 10 years, The increase in APDQS over time was similarly associated with less concurrent weight gain. Findings were stronger for models of excess weight gain. CONCLUSION: Higher diet quality, based on an assessment of dietary patterns in and after adolescence, was associated with reduced weight gain during the next 10 years. Establishment of high-quality dietary patterns in adolescence may help mitigate excess weight gain by young adulthood.

Socioeconomic Status and Hospitalization Costs for Children with Brain and Spinal Cord Injury.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if household income is associated with hospitalization costs for severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and spinal cord injury (SCI). STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study of inpatient, nonrehabilitation hospitalizations at 43 freestanding children's hospitals for patients <19 years old with unintentional severe TBI and SCI from 2009-2012. Standardized cost of care for hospitalizations was modeled using mixed-effects methods, adjusting for age, sex, race/ethnicity, primary payer, presence of chronic medical condition, mechanism of injury, injury severity, distance from residence to hospital, and trauma center level. Main exposure was zip code level median annual household income. RESULTS: There were 1061 patients that met inclusion criteria, 833 with TBI only, 227 with SCI only, and 1 with TBI and SCI. Compared with those with the lowest-income zip codes, patients from the highest-income zip codes were more likely to be older, white (76.7% vs 50.4%), have private insurance (68.9% vs 27.9%), and live closer to the hospital (median distance 26.7 miles vs 81.2 miles). In adjusted models, there was no significant association between zip code level household income and hospitalization costs. CONCLUSIONS: Children hospitalized with unintentional, severe TBI and SCI showed no difference in standardized hospital costs relative to a patient's home zip code level median annual household income. The association between household income and hospitalization costs may vary by primary diagnosis.

Follow-up After Pediatric Mental Health Emergency Visits.

OBJECTIVES: To examine how outpatient mental health (MH) follow-up after a pediatric MH emergency department (ED) discharge varies by patient characteristics and to evaluate the association between timely follow-up and return encounters. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of 28 551 children aged 6 to 17 years with MH ED discharges from January 2018 to June 2019, using the IBM Watson MarketScan Medicaid database. Odds of nonemergent outpatient follow-up, adjusted for sociodemographic and clinical characteristics, were estimated using logistic regression. Cox proportional hazard models were used to evaluate the association between timely follow-up and risk of return MH acute care encounters (ED visits and hospitalizations). RESULTS: Following MH ED discharge, 31.2% and 55.8% of children had an outpatient MH visit within 7 and 30 days, respectively. The return rate was 26.5% within 6 months. Compared with children with no past-year outpatient MH visits, those with ≥14 past-year MH visits had 9.53 odds of accessing follow-up care within 30 days (95% confidence interval [CI], 8.75-10.38). Timely follow-up within 30 days was associated with a 26% decreased risk of return within 5 days of the index ED discharge (hazard ratio, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.63-0.91), followed by an increased risk of return thereafter. CONCLUSIONS: Connection to outpatient care within 7 and 30 days of a MH ED discharge remains poor, and children without prior MH outpatient care are at highest risk for poor access to care. Interventions to link to outpatient MH care should prioritize follow-up within 5 days of an MH ED discharge.

Association between major patterns of dietary intake and weight status in adolescents.

The relationship between dietary intake and obesity is complex, and dietary pattern analysis may offer new insight. We examined associations between dietary patterns identified in a diverse cohort of adolescents and weight status cross-sectionally and over a 5-year period. Project EAT (Eating Among Teens) (Time 1) collected data on 4746 middle (younger cohort) and high school (older cohort) students in 1998-9. EAT-II (Time 2) resurveyed 2516 of the original cohort in 2003-4. All analyses were run separately by age cohort and sex. The relationship between dietary patterns identified previously (vegetable, fruit, vegetable & fruit, starchy food, sweet & salty snack food, and fast food) and weight status was examined using logistic regression. All analyses were adjusted for socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity and activity level (longitudinal analyses were also adjusted for baseline weight status). In cross-sectional analyses, higher adherence to dietary patterns loading heavily on vegetables was associated with lower risk of overweight/obese weight status in older and younger girls, whereas higher adherence to a 'sweet & salty snack food' pattern was associated with lower risk in older and younger boys. These associations were found prospectively in older boys and girls, but were no longer significant in analyses adjusting for baseline weight status. We did not find consistent or intuitive associations between dietary patterns and weight status. Identified patterns may not capture the elements of diet that are truly important in determining adolescent weight, or diet may not be the primary driver in determining weight status at this age. Methodological difficulties in assessing diet must also be taken into consideration.

Pediatric emergency departments' readiness for change toward improving suicide prevention: A mixed-methods study with US leaders.

Objective: To assess pediatric emergency departments' (PEDs) current suicide prevention practices and climate for change to improve suicide prevention for youth. Methods: We conducted an explanatory, sequential mixed-methods study. First, we deployed a national, cross-sectional survey of PED leaders identified through publicly available data in Fall 2020, and then we conducted follow-up interviews with those who expressed interest. The survey queried each PED's suicide prevention practices and measured readiness for change to improve suicide prevention practices using questions scored on a 5-point Likert scale. Interviews gathered further, in-depth descriptions of PEDs' practices and culture. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using a rapid analysis approach. Results: Of 135 PED directors eligible to complete the survey, 64 responded (response rate 47%). A total of 64% of PEDs had a mental health specialist available 24 hours/day, 7 days/week; 80% reported practicing mental health disposition planning, and 41% reported practicing psychiatric medication management. Altogether 91% of directors agreed or strongly agreed that their PED had a positive culture and 92% agreed/strongly agreed that their PED was ready for change. However, 31% disagreed/strongly disagreed that their PED had tools for evaluation and quality measurement. Resources needed for change (including budget, staffing, training, and facilities) varied across institutions. Interviews with our convenience sample of 21 directors revealed varying suicide prevention practices and confirmed that standardization, evaluation, and quality improvement initiatives were needed at most institutions. Leaders reported a high interest in improving care. Conclusions: PED leaders reported high motivation to improve suicide prevention services for young people, and reported needing quality improvement infrastructure to monitor and guide improvement.

Association of Neighborhood Resources and Race and Ethnicity With Readmissions for Diabetic Ketoacidosis at US Children's Hospitals.

Importance: The Child Opportunity Index 2.0 (COI) assesses neighborhood resources and conditions that influence health. It is unclear whether the COI scores are associated with health outcomes by race and ethnicity among children with type 1 diabetes (T1D). Objective: To determine whether COI categories are associated with diabetes-related outcomes by race and ethnicity, including readmissions for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and co-occurring acute kidney injury (AKI) or cerebral edema (CE). Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study included children discharged with a primary diagnosis of T1D with DKA between January 1, 2009, and December 31, 2018. Merged data were obtained from the Pediatric Health Information System and COI. Participants included children and adolescents younger than 21 years with an encounter for DKA. Data were analyzed from April 29, 2021, to January 5, 2022. Exposures: Neighborhood opportunity, measured with the COI as an ordered, categorical score (where a higher score indicates more opportunity), and race and ethnicity. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was readmission for DKA within 30 and 365 days from an index visit. Secondary outcomes included the proportion of encounters with AKI or CE. Mixed-effects logistic regression was used to generate probabilities of readmission, AKI, and CE for each quintile of COI category by race and ethnicity. Results: A total of 72 726 patient encounters were identified, including 38 924 (53.5%) for girls; the median patient age was 13 (IQR, 9-15) years. In terms of race and ethnicity, 600 (0.8%) of the encounters occurred in Asian patients, 9969 (13.7%) occurred in Hispanic patients, 16 876 (23.2%) occurred in non-Hispanic Black (hereinafter Black) patients, 40 129 (55.2%) occurred in non-Hispanic White (hereinafter White) patients, and 5152 (7.1%) occurred in patients of other race or ethnicity. The probability of readmission within 365 days was significantly higher among Black children with a very low COI category compared with Hispanic children (risk difference, 7.8 [95% CI, 6.0-9.6] percentage points) and White children (risk difference, 7.5 [95% CI, 5.9-9.1] percentage points) at the same COI category. Similar differences were seen for children with very high COI scores and across racial groups. The COI category was not associated with AKI or CE. However, race and ethnicity constituted a significant factor associated with AKI across all COI categories. The probability of AKI was 6.8% among Black children compared with 4.2% among Hispanic children (risk difference, 2.5 [95% CI, 1.7-3.3] percentage points) and 4.8% among White children (risk difference, 2.0 [95% CI, 1.3-2.6] percentage points). Conclusions and Relevance: These results suggest that Black children with T1D experience disparities in health outcomes compared with other racial and ethnic groups with similar COI categories. Measures to prevent readmissions for DKA should include interventions that target racial disparities and community factors.

The impact of COVID-19 on disease epidemiology, family dynamics, and social justice in Minnesota: All that you cannot see.

Objective: The COVID-19 pandemic presented a challenge to established seed grant funding mechanisms aimed at fostering collaboration in child health research between investigators at the University of Minnesota (UMN) and Children's Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota (Children's MN). We created a "rapid response," small grant program to catalyze collaborations in child health COVID-19 research. In this paper, we describe the projects funded by this mechanism and metrics of their success. Methods: Using seed funds from the UMN Clinical and Translational Science Institute, the UMN Medical School Department of Pediatrics, and the Children's Minnesota Research Institute, a rapid response request for applications (RFAs) was issued based on the stipulations that the proposal had to: 1) consist of a clear, synergistic partnership between co-PIs from the academic and community settings; and 2) that the proposal addressed an area of knowledge deficit relevant to child health engendered by the COVID-19 pandemic. Results: Grant applications submitted in response to this RFA segregated into three categories: family fragility and disruption exacerbated by COVID-19; knowledge gaps about COVID-19 disease in children; and optimizing pediatric care in the setting of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions. A series of virtual workshops presented research results to the pediatric community. Several manuscripts and extramural funding awards underscored the success of the program. Conclusions: A "rapid response" seed funding mechanism enabled nascent academic-community research partnerships during the COVID-19 pandemic. In the context of the rapidly evolving landscape of COVID-19, flexible seed grant programs can be useful in addressing unmet needs in pediatric health.

A Quality Improvement Initiative to Reduce Hospitalizations for Low-risk Diabetic Ketoacidosis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Children with established type 1 diabetes (T1D) who present to the emergency department (ED) with mild diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) are often hospitalized, although outpatient management may be appropriate. Our aim was to reduce hospitalization rates for children with established T1D presenting to our ED with mild DKA who were considered low risk for progression of illness. METHODS: We conducted a quality improvement initiative between January 1, 2012, and December 31, 2018 among children and young adults ≤21 years of age with established T1D presenting to our tertiary care ED with low-risk DKA. Children transferred to our institution were excluded. DKA severity was classified as low, medium, or high risk on the basis of laboratory and clinical criteria. Our quality improvement initiative consisted of development and implementation of an evidence-based treatment guideline after review by a multidisciplinary team. Our primary outcome was hospitalization rate, and our balancing measure was 3-day ED revisits. Statistical process control methods were used to evaluate outcome changes. RESULTS: We identified 165 patients presenting with low-risk DKA. The baseline preimplementation hospitalization rate was 74% (95% confidence interval 64%-82%), and after implementation, this decreased to 55% (95% confidence interval 42%-67%) (-19%; P = .011). The postimplementation hospitalization rate revealed special cause variation. One patient in the postimplementation period returned to the ED within 3 days but did not have DKA and was not hospitalized. CONCLUSIONS: Hospitalization rates for children and young adults presenting to the ED with low-risk DKA can be safely reduced without an increase in ED revisits.

Longitudinal Trends in Costs for Hospitalizations at Children's Hospitals.

OBJECTIVES: Children's hospitals are increasingly focused on value-based improvement efforts to improve outcomes and lower costs. Such efforts are generally focused on improving outcomes in specific conditions. Examination of cost drivers across all admissions may facilitate strategic prioritization of efforts. METHODS: Pediatric Health Information System data set discharges from 2010 to 2017 were aggregated into services lines and billing categories. The mean annual growth per discharge as a percentage of 2010 total costs was calculated for aggregated medical and surgical service lines and 6 individual service lines with highest rates of growth. The mean annual growth per discharge for each billing category and changes in length of stay was further assessed. RESULTS: The mean annual growth in total costs was similar for aggregated medical (2.6%) and surgical (2.7%) service lines. Individual medical service lines with highest mean annual growth were oncology (3.5%), reproductive services (2.9%), and nonsurgical orthopedics (2.8%); surgical service lines with highest rate of growth were solid organ transplant (3.7%), ophthalmology (3.3%), and otolaryngology (2.9%). CONCLUSIONS: Room costs contributed most consistently to cost increases without concomitant increases in length of stay. Value-based health care initiatives must focus on room cost increases and their impacts on patient outcomes.

Care of Pediatric High-Cost Hospitalizations Across Hospital Types.

BACKGROUND: High-cost hospitalizations (HCHs) account for a substantial proportion of pediatric health care expenditures. We aimed to (1) describe the distribution of pediatric HCHs across hospital types caring for children and (2) compare characteristics of pediatric HCHs by hospital type. METHODS: Cross-sectional analysis of all pediatric hospitalizations in the 2012 Kids' Inpatient Database. HCHs were defined as costs >$40 000 (94th percentile). Hospitals were categorized as children's, small general, and large general. RESULTS: Approximately 166 000 HCHs were responsible for 50.8% of aggregate hospital costs ($18.1 of $35.7 billion) and were mostly at children's hospitals (65%). Children with an HCH were largely neonates (45%), had public insurance (50%), and had ≥1 chronic condition (74%). A total of 131 children's hospitals cared for a median of 559 HCHs per hospital (interquartile range [IQR]: 355-1153) compared to 76 HCHs per hospital (IQR: 32-151) at 397 large general hospitals and 5 HCHs per hospital (IQR: 2-22) at 3581 small general hospitals. The median annual aggregate cost for HCHs was $60 million (IQR: $36-$135) per children's hospital compared to $6.6 million (IQR: $2-$15) per large general hospital and $300 000 (IQR: $116 000-$1.5 million) per small general hospital. HCHs from children's hospitals encompassed nearly 5 times as many unique clinical conditions as large general hospitals and >30 times as many as small general hospitals. CONCLUSIONS: Children's hospitals cared for a disproportionate volume, cost, and diversity of HCHs compared to general hospitals. Future studies should characterize the factors driving cost, resources, and reimbursement practices for HCH to ensure the long-term financial viability of the pediatric health care system.