kCSD-python, reliable current source density estimation with quality control.

Interpretation of extracellular recordings can be challenging due to the long range of electric field. This challenge can be mitigated by estimating the current source density (CSD). Here we introduce kCSD-python, an open Python package implementing Kernel Current Source Density (kCSD) method and related tools to facilitate CSD analysis of experimental data and the interpretation of results. We show how to counter the limitations imposed by noise and assumptions in the method itself. kCSD-python allows CSD estimation for an arbitrary distribution of electrodes in 1D, 2D, and 3D, assuming distributions of sources in tissue, a slice, or in a single cell, and includes a range of diagnostic aids. We demonstrate its features in a Jupyter Notebook tutorial which illustrates a typical analytical workflow and main functionalities useful in validating analysis results.

Synthesis and Characterization of New Chiral Smectic Four-Ring Esters.

Orthoconic antiferroelectric liquid crystals (OAFLCs) represent unique self-organized materials with significant potential for applications in photonic devices due to their sub-microsecond switching times and high optical contrast in electro-optical effects. However, almost all known OALFCs suffer from low chemical stability and short helical pitch values. This paper presents the synthesis and study results of two chiral AFLCs, featuring a four-ring structure in the rigid core and high chemical stability. The mesomorphic properties of these compounds were investigated using polarizing optical microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. Spectrometry and electro-optical studies were employed to estimate the helical pitch, tilt angle, and spontaneous polarization of the synthesized compounds and the prepared mixtures. All studied compounds exhibit enantiotropic chiral smectic mesophases including the SmA*, the SmC*, and a very broad temperature range of the SmCA* phase. Doping top-modern antiferroelectric mixture with synthesized compounds offers benefits such as increased helical pitch and tilt angle values without significantly influencing spontaneous polarization. This allows the prepared mixture to be regarded as an OAFLC with high optical contrast, characterized by an almost perfect dark state. These valuable physicochemical and optical properties suggest significant potential of studied materials for practical applications.

Reversed urban-rural gradient in COVID-19 seroprevalence and related factors in a nationally representative survey, Poland, 29 March to 14 May 2021.

BackgroundWe anticipated that people in rural areas and small towns with lower population density, lower connectivity and jobs less dependent on social interaction will be less exposed to COVID-19. Still, other variables correlated with socioeconomic inequalities may have a greater impact on transmission.AimWe investigated how COVID-19 affected rural and urban communities in Poland, focussing on the most exposed groups and disparities in SARS-CoV-2 transmission.MethodsA random digit dial sample of Polish adults stratified by region and age was drawn from 29 March to 14 May 2021. Serum samples were tested for anti-S1 and anti-N IgG antibodies, and positive results in both assays were considered indicative of past infection. Seroprevalence estimates were weighted to account for non-response. Adjusted odds ratios (AORs) were calculated using multivariable logistic regression.ResultsThere was serological evidence of infection in 32.2% (95% CI: 30.2-34.4) of adults in rural areas/small towns (< 50,000 population) and 26.6% (95% CI: 24.9-28.3) in larger cities. Regional SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence ranged from 23.4% (95% CI: 18.3-29.5) to 41.0% (95% CI: 33.5-49.0) and was moderately positively correlated (R = 0.588; p = 0.017; n = 16) with the proportion of respondents living in rural areas or small cities. Upon multivariable adjustment, both men (AOR = 1.60; 95% CI: 1.09-2.35) and women (AOR = 2.26; 95% CI: 1.58-3.21) from these areas were more likely to be seropositive than residents of larger cities.ConclusionsWe found an inverse urban-rural gradient of SARS-CoV-2 infections during early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland and suggest that vulnerabilities of populations living in rural areas need to be addressed.

Foodborne botulism in Poland in 2018-2021.

Objectives: The aim of this study is to assess the epidemiological situation of foodborne botulism in Poland in 2018-2021, compared to previous years. Materials and methods: The assessment is based on an analysis of aggregated surveillance data from the annual bulletin "Infectious Diseases and Poisons in Poland" from 2013-2021, as well as botulism case reports collected by sanitary-epidemiological stations and sent to the Department of Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases and Surveillance of the NIPH NIH - NRI or provided by EpiBase. Results: A total of 54 foodborne botulism cases were registered between 2018 and 2021, including 31 (57.4%) cases of laboratory-confirmed botulism intoxication. Most cases (46 cases, 85.2%) were sporadic. The declining trend in the number of notifications continued throughout the time period, and the incidence recorded in 2021 (0.02 per 100,000 population) was the lowest since the introduction of mandatory reporting and registration of botulism in Poland. The highest median annual incidence was recorded in the Warmisko-Mazurskie (0.18), but many voivodeships reported only single notifications or none. The decreasing trend in rural areas relative to the level of incidence in urban areas continued. Men (incidence in men more than twice that of women) and people aged 50-59 predominated. All patients were hospitalized. According to the State Sanitary Inspection, there were 3 deaths (mortality of 5.6%). Conclusions: In 2018-2021, the downward trend in the number of foodborne botulism notifications in Poland continued. At the same time, the considerable proportion of cases reported by physicians without laboratory confirmation and not meeting the definition of botulism adopted in other EU countries is noteworthy. The incidence in rural areas decreases to the level of incidence in urban areas, and the previously observed geographical distribution of cases diminishes.

Legionellosis in Poland in 2018-2021.

Objectives: The aim of this study is to compare the epidemiological situation of legionellosis in Poland in 2018-2021 to prior years, taking into account the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020-2021. Material and methods: The assessment is based on national surveillance data published in the annual bulletin "Infectious Diseases and Poisons in Poland" from 2013 to 2021, as well as data from Legionnaires' disease case reports collected and sent to the Department of Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases and Surveillance NIPH NIH - NRI by sanitary and epidemiological stations or submitted to EpiBase. Results: In Poland, both Legionnaires' disease (an acute infection that progresses to pneumonia) and Pontiac fever (a mild, flu-like sickness) are reported. In 2018-2021, a total of 255 cases of legionellosis were registered, including 236 cases of Legionnaires' disease and 19 cases of Pontiac fever. Each year, there was an increase in the number of notifications compared to the annual median number of cases from 2013-2017. The annual incidence rate in 2019 (0.23 per 100,000 population) was the highest since the start of legionellosis case registration in Poland. It declined again during the years of the COVID-19 pandemic. The notifications occurred throughout the country, but the highest notification rate was observed in the western belt of voivodeships. Pomorskie reported the highest incidence, accounting for more than 20% of all registered cases. The median incidence of Legionnaires' disease in men (0.23 per 100,000) was more than twice that of women (0.10), with the highest incidence (0.58) recorded in men 65 years of age or older. All indigenous cases of Legionnaires' disease were sporadic; all but three patients were hospitalized. State Sanitary Inspection reported 26 fatal cases of Legionnaires' disease (mortality = 11%). Twenty-four cases were linked to contaminated water systems in health-care settings, and 21 cases were likely associated with travel abroad. Summary and conclusions: Although the number of notifications has increased in recent years, Legionnaires' disease is still an infrequently diagnosed respiratory infection in Poland, and the reported incidence remains one of the lowest in the entire EU. The most affected demographic group is men aged 65 and older. Improving the early diagnosis of Legionnaires' disease in healthcare settings remains a priority.

Signaling mechanisms and their regulation during in vivo or in vitro maturation of mammalian oocytes.

In vitro fertilization (IVF) is currently one of the most effective methods of infertility treatment. An alternative to commonly used ovarian hyperstimulation can become extracorporeal maturation of oocytes (in vitro maturation; IVM). Fertilization and normal development of the embryo depends on the cytoplasmic, nuclear and genomic maturity of the oocyte. The microenvironment of the ovarian follicle and maternal signals, which mediate bidirectional communication between granulosa, cumulus and oocyte cells, influence the growth, maturation and acquisition of oocyte development capability. During oogenesis in mammals, the meiosis is inhibited in the oocyte at the prophase I of the meiotic division due to the high cAMP level. This level is maintained by the activity of C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP, NPPC) produced by granulosa cells. The CNP binds to the NPR2 receptor in cumulus cells and is responsible for the production of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). The cGMP penetrating into the oocyte through gap junctions inhibits phosphodiesterase 3A (PDE3A), preventing cAMP hydrolysis responsible for low MPF activity. The LH surge during the reproductive cycle reduces the activity of the CNP/NPR2 complex, which results in a decrease in cGMP levels in cumulus cells and consequently in the oocyte. Reduced cGMP concentration unblocks the hydrolytic activity of PDE3A, which decreases cAMP level inside the oocyte. This leads to the activation of MPF and resumption of meiosis. The latest IVM methods called SPOM, NFSOM or CAPA IVM consist of two steps: prematuration and maturation itself. Taking into account the role of cAMP in inhibiting and then unblocking the maturation of oocytes, they have led to a significant progress in terms of the percentage of mature oocytes in vitro and the proportion of properly developed embryos in both animals and humans.

What we can and what we cannot see with extracellular multielectrodes.

Extracellular recording is an accessible technique used in animals and humans to study the brain physiology and pathology. As the number of recording channels and their density grows it is natural to ask how much improvement the additional channels bring in and how we can optimally use the new capabilities for monitoring the brain. Here we show that for any given distribution of electrodes we can establish exactly what information about current sources in the brain can be recovered and what information is strictly unobservable. We demonstrate this in the general setting of previously proposed kernel Current Source Density method and illustrate it with simplified examples as well as using evoked potentials from the barrel cortex obtained with a Neuropixels probe and with compatible model data. We show that with conceptual separation of the estimation space from experimental setup one can recover sources not accessible to standard methods.

Legionellosis in Poland in 2017

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to assess the epidemiological situation of legionellosis in Poland in 2017 in comparison with previous years. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The analysis is based on national surveillance data published in the annual bulletin: "Infectious diseases and poisonings in Poland in 2017" and bulletins from previous years along with data from legionellosis case reports collected and sent to the Department of Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases and Surveillance NIPH ­ NIH by Sanitary and Epidemiological Stations. RESULTS: In Poland, both cases of Legionnaires' disease (an acute form of infection with pneumonia) and Pontiac fever (a mild, influenza-like form of infection) are routinely reported to the surveillance system. In 2017, a total of 39 cases of legionellosis were registered, including 38 cases of Legionnaires' disease and 1 case of Pontiac fever; the annual incidence rate 0.102 (per 100,000 population) has increased by almost 50 percent since previous year (0.070) and is almost three times higher than the median incidence (0.036) for 2011-2015. The infections were reported in fourteen voivodeships; only one voivodeship (Swietokrzyskie) did not register any case in last years. The incidence in men (0.129 per 100,000) was higher compared to women (0.076); the highest incidence (0.323) was noted in men aged 50-59. All reported cases were sporadic and were hospitalised. The Sanitary Inspection reported nine fatal cases ­ 6 women and 3 men. Thirty three cases were autochthonous including four cases linked with contaminated water systems in health-care settings. Six cases were associated with travels abroad (to Egypt, Albania, Italy and Crete). SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS: Although in recent years number of reported cases continues to rise, the incidence of legionellosis in Poland remains one of the lowest in the entire EU. Also draws attention variation of incidence between provinces and a high mortality among reported cases. Our data suggest significant under-diagnosis of legionellosis. A priority remains to improve early diagnosis of Legionnaires' disease in health care settings.

Foodborne botulism in Poland in 2017

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study is to assess the epidemiological situation of foodborne botulism in Poland in 2017 compared to previous years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The assessment is based on national surveillance data on foodborne botulism cases available in the annual bulletin "Infectious diseases and poisonings in Poland in 2017" and in previous publications, as well as data from botulism case reports for 2017 submitted by Sanitary-Epidemiological Stations to the Department of Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases and Surveillance NIPH-NIH. RESULTS: In 2017, a total of 24 foodborne botulism cases have been reported including 14 with laboratory confirmation of botulism intoxication. The annual incidence rate (0.06 per 100,000 population) was one the lowest since the introduction of mandatory reporting of the disease in Poland. The highest incidence in the country was noted in Podlaskie (0.34). The incidence rate among rural residents (0.10 per 100,000 population) was more than twice as high as in urban areas (0.04). The incidence in men was 49% higher than in women. The disease was most common in middle-aged and elderly people; the highest incidence was noted in age group of 40-49 years (0.13) and 50-59 years (0.14). The most common sources of the toxin were homemade canned pork products as well as mixed or unknown types of canned meats. All patients were hospitalized. Four deaths related to the disease were reported. CONCLUSIONS: In 2017, the overall number of reported cases continues to decrease. Limited number of laboratories performing laboratory diagnostics of botulism is still an issue. Additionally a priority remains to conduct health education with regard to safe food preservation, storage and consumption.

The effect of dopant chirality on the properties of self-assembling materials with a ferroelectric order.

A series of achiral hockey stick-shaped molecules forming a tilted smectic I liquid crystal phase as well as one non-mesogenic chiral bistereogenic analogue were synthesized and characterized. Herein, we report an example of an achiral hockey stick-shaped compound exhibiting a smectic I phase with a direct transition to the isotropic phase for the first time. This occurrence was confirmed via polarized light microscopy, dielectric spectroscopy, and XRD studies. Homologues with an odd number of carbon atoms in the oligomethylene spacer chain exhibit a lower clearing point than members posessing an even number of carbon atoms in this chain; thus, a characteristic odd-even effect has been observed. The influence of the synthesized compounds with different degrees of chirality and similar chemical structures on the properties of the host compound with a chiral smectic C phase was investigated. A chiral compound forming a wide-temperature chiral smectic C phase without any additional mesophase and having a short helical pitch was selected as the host material for the creation of two bicomponent systems. The mesomorphism of each binary mixture was characterized using optical microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. The helical pitch of every binary mixture, forming a chiral smectic C phase, was studied within its full phase temperature range. As expected, the chiral host compound in the smectic C* phase doped with the hockey stick-shaped mesogen exhibited a longer helical pitch and lower spontaneous polarization than the chiral host material. On the other hand, for the chiral host compound doped with a non-mesogenic analogue containing two chiral centres, the helical pitch was shorter, and the spontaneous polarization was higher. These results should be potentially applicable for the design of advanced functional multi-component mixtures useful for various applications. The mesogenic behaviour of one binary mixture, forming both the chiral smectic I and titled chiral smectic C phases, was deeply studied via X-ray diffraction and dielectric spectroscopy techniques.

Genital Chlamydia trachomatis infections in young adults - a school-based bio-behavioural study in urban areas, Poland, 2012 to 2015.

Context and AimOne of the most common sexually transmitted pathogens disproportionately affecting young people is Chlamydia trachomatis (CT). This study aimed to assess prevalence of CT among sexually active students (aged 18-19 years) in their final years of high school education in Warsaw and Krakow. Methods: The sample was selected from 61 clusters, each cluster representing one school. We described city, sex, type of school and their association with CT prevalence. To account for non-responders we applied inverse probability weighting. Results: Our study population consisted of 3,136 young adults eligible for CT screening, of whom 2,326 reported having had sexual intercourse within past 12 months. Of the 950 students who agreed to be tested, 39 were infected with CT. Weighted prevalence of CT was 3.9% (95% confidence interval (CI): 2.7-5.1); however, prevalence in the students in Warsaw (6.6%; 95% CI: 3.5-12.4) was six times higher (prevalence ratio (PR) = 5.9; 95% CI: 2.0-17.3) than in Krakow (1.1%; 95% CI: 0.5-2.6). In both settings, female students attending vocational-technical schools were most affected; the prevalence in this group was more than five times higher (PR = 5.2; 95% CI: 1.7-15.6) compared with female peers in high schools and more than three times higher (PR = 3.3; 95% CI: 1.0-10.7) compared with male peers attending vocational-technical schools. Conclusion: Our study suggested prevalence of CT infection among young people in Poland comparable with the European average, supporting implementation of a CT control programme as recommended in international guidelines.

Legionellosis in Poland in 2016

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to assess the epidemiological situation of legionellosis in Poland in 2016 in comparison to the preceding years. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The assessment was based on national surveillance data published in the annual bulletin: "Infectious diseases and poisonings in Poland in 2016" and its prior versions along with data from legionellosis case reports sent from Sanitary-Epidemiological Stations to the Department of Epidemiology of NIPH - NIH. RESULTS: In Poland, both two main forms of legionellosis - Legionnaires' disease and Pontiac fever are routinely reported to the surveillance system. In 2016, a total of 27 cases of legionellosis were registered, including 25 cases of Legionnaires' disease and 2 cases of Pontiac fever; in 2016, a total of 27 cases of legionellosis have been reported, including 25 cases of Legionnaires' disease and 2 cases of Pontiac fever; the annual incidence rate 0.070 (per 100,000 population) was comparable to previous year (0.060) but almost twice as high as the median (incidence) for 2010-2014. The infections were reported in 11 provinces, including two, which in previous years usually did not register any cases; only two provinces (out of 16 in the country) have reported no cases in recent years. The incidence in men (0.080 per 100,000) was higher compared to women (0.055). All reported cases were sporadic and, except for one mild case of Legionnaires' disease, required hospitalization. The Sanitary Inspection reported two fatal cases ­ both women aged 59 and 69. Twenty cases were autochthonous including four cases linked with contaminated water systems in hospitals. Seven cases were associated with travel abroad (to Germany, Russia, Greece, Australia, USA and Thailand). SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS: Despite the increase in the number of cases in recent years as well as number of provinces, which detected cases, the annual incidence of legionellosis in Poland remains one of the lowest in the EU, which suggests that this infection is likely under-recognized and underdiagnosed in all provinces of the country.

Foodborne botulism in Poland in 2016

OBJECTIVES: The main aim of the study is to assess the epidemiological situation of foodborne botulism in Poland in 2016 compared to previous years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this assessment we reviewed national surveillance data on foodborne botulism cases published in the annual bulletin "Infectious diseases and poisonings in Poland in 2016" and in previous publications, as well as unpublished data retrieved from botulism case reports for 2016 sent from Sanitary-Epidemiological Stations to the Department of Epidemiology NIPH-NIH. RESULTS: In 2016, a total of 26 foodborne botulism cases (including 18 laboratory confirmed) were reported and the annual incidence rate (0.07 per 100,000 population) was slightly lower than both the previous year and the median incidence from 2010-2014. The highest incidence in the country was noted in Lubelskie (0.33), Warminsko-mazurskie (0.28) and Zachodniopomorskie provinces (0.23). The incidence in rural areas (0.10 per 100,000 population) was twice as high as in urban areas (0.05); incidence among men was 8 times as high as among women; the highest incidence (0.36) was observed in men in the age group of 50-59 years. Most cases were associated with consumption of homemade canned fish or pork products and mixed or unknown types of canned meats. All patients were hospitalized. Three deaths related to the disease were reported. CONCLUSIONS: In 2016, the epidemiological situation of foodborne botulism in Poland has not changed significantly. This study suggests the need for training of health care professionals to improve diagnosis of botulism as well as continuous health education with respect to how to safely preserve, store and consume food at home.

What weighs more-low compliance with self-deferral or minor medical procedures? Explaining the high rate of hepatitis C virus window-period donations in Poland.

BACKGROUND: Since the introduction of nucleic acid testing (NAT) for routine blood donor screening, hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA-only detection rates reported from Poland have been higher than in most other European countries. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: To examine factors that likely contribute to these window-period donations, we conducted a case-control study among 47 recently HCV-infected blood donors (cases), who gave blood between July 2002 and June 2014, and 141 controls matched by age, sex, and donation dates. Firth-corrected, conditional logistic regression models were fitted to estimate adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. Adjusted population-attributable fractions were calculated based on the distribution of exposure among the cases. RESULTS: On multivariate analysis, recent exposures in health care environments not routinely ascertained through predonation questionnaires were strongly associated with recently acquired HCV infection. These exposures included minor medical and dental procedures in the preceding 6 months (adjusted odds ratio, 5.77; 95 % confidence interval, 2.01-18.53). However, based on the population-attributable fraction, more important were behavioral deferrable risks that went unreported at the time of donation, such as high-risk sexual behaviors in the preceding 6 months (population-attributable fraction, 34%) or lifetime histories of drug use (population-attributable fraction, 28%). CONCLUSIONS: This study raises questions about the effectiveness of deferral policy in excluding high-risk individuals. In addition, it provides further evidence supporting short, temporal deferrals for small medical procedures and dental treatments in Poland.

Foodborne botulism in Poland in 2015

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this article is to assess the epidemiology of foodborne botulism in Poland in 2015 compared to previous years MATERIALS AND METHODS: We reviewed (1) national surveillance data published in the annual bulletin "Infectious diseases and poisonings in Poland in 2015" and in previous publications, and (2) unpublished data retrieved from botulism case reports for 2015 sent from Sanitary-Epidemiological Stations to the Department of Epidemiology NIPH-NIH. RESULTS: In 2015, a total of 30 foodborne botulism cases (including 18 laboratory confirmed) was reported; the annual incidence rate (0.08 per 100,000 population) was remarkably similar to that reported in previous year and to the median incidence for years 2009 to 2013. The highest incidence in the country was reported in Swietokrzyskie (0.24), Lubelskie (0.23) and Zachodniopomorskie province (0.23). Incidence in rural areas (0.13 per 100,000 population) was over 3-times higher than the incidence in urban areas (0.04). Similarly, men had more than 3 times higher incidence than women; As in previous year the highest incidence rate (0.30 per 100,000 population) was observed among men in the age group of 20-24 years. Most cases were associated with consumption of different types of commercially canned meat. Commercially produced canned fishery items were also a common vehicle. All cases except one were hospitalized. No deaths related to the disease were reported. CONCLUSIONS: In 2015, the annual incidence of foodborne botulism in Poland was remarkably similar to that reported in previous years. Since 2008 the number of foodborne botulism is stabilizing with an average of 30 cases per year and corresponding incidence rate of 0.08 per 100,000 population. It is important to conduct thorough epidemiological investigation of each case, in order to identify the most common food vehicles for botulism and other risk factors.

Legionellosis in Poland in 2015

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to assess the epidemiological situation of legionellosis in Poland in 2015 in comparison to the preceding years. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We reviewed data published in the annual bulletin: "Infectious diseases and poisonings in Poland in 2015" and its prior versions along with the legionellosis case reports sent from Sanitary- Epidemiological Stations to the Department of Epidemiology of NIPH - NIH. RESULTS: In Poland, both two forms of legionellosis - Legionnaires' disease (a severe form of disease accompanied by pneumonia) and Pontiac fever (mild, influenza-like form of infection) - are notifiable. In 2015, a total of 23 cases of Legionnaires' disease have been reported (there were no reports of Pontiac fever). The annual incidence rate 0.060 (per 100,000 population) slightly increased when compared to previous year as well as to the median (incidence) for 2009-2013. The infections were reported in 10 provinces, including five, which in previous years usually did not register any cases; however, there is a number of provinces that did not identify any LD cases in recent years. The incidence in males (0.097 per 100,000) was almost 4-times higher compared to females (0.025). Except for one cluster of two, all cases were sporadic; All patients required hospitalization. The Sanitary Inspection reported four fatal cases ­ all men 43- 67 years/old. Eighteen cases were likely acquired in the country, including a cluster of two cases linked with contaminated building water system. Four cases were associated with travels abroad (to Russia, Croatia, United Arab Emirates and USA) and in one case the exposure occurred during the transport of goods (lorry driver). SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests, that legionellosis is likely under recognized and under diagnosed in all provinces of the country. Geographical variations in incidence may reflect local differences in availability of laboratory tests for LD. Number of detected cases - without information on the number of laboratory tests performed - do not appear to be sufficient to fully assess the epidemiological situation.

Legionellosis in Poland in 2014

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to assess the epidemiological situation of legionellosis in Poland in 2014. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We reviewed data published in the annual bulletin: "Infectious diseases and poisonings in Poland in 2014" and its prior versions along with the legionellosis case reports sent to the Department of Epidemiology of NIPH - NIH. RESULTS: In Poland, both two forms of legionellosis - Legionnaires' disease (a severe form of disease accompanied by pneumonia) and Pontiac fever (mild, influenza-like form of infection) - are routinely reported to the surveillance. In 2014, a total of 14 cases were reported (12 cases of Legionnaires' disease and 2 cases of Pontiac fever); the incidence (0.036 per 100,000 population) was comparable to previous year as well as the median (incidence) for 2008-2012. The infections were reported in eight provinces, including five, which in previous years usually did not register any cases. The incidence in males (0.04 per 100,000) was slightly higher compared to females (0.03). Death rate of females was unusually high = 75%. No outbreaks or clusters were reported - only sporadic cases. All patients required hospitalization, including cases of Pontiac fever. The Sanitary Inspection reported three fatal cases ­ all women 49- 60 years/old. Twelve cases were likely acquired in the country, including two probably in hospital and three linked with inhalation of aerosols during professional activity. Two cases were associated with travels abroad (one to Italy and one to Germany). SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS: In 2014 diagnosis of legionellosis cases was confirmed by rapid chromatographic test detecting legionella antigen in urine. The examinations were performed even in small town hospitals, so infections were detected and reported in provinces which usually did not register any cases. This study suggests, that legionellosis is likely under recognized and under diagnosed in all provinces of the country. Presumably physicians often do not suspect or not confirm the clinical diagnosis of Legionnaires' disease in cases with atypical pneumonia.

Foodborne botulism in Poland in 2014

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study is to assess the epidemiology of foodborne botulism in Poland in 2014 compared to previous years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We reviewed (1) surveillance data published in the annual bulletin "Infectious diseases and poisonings in Poland in 2014" and in previous publications, and (2) unpublished data retrieved from botulism case reports for 2014 sent to the Department of Epidemiology NIPH-NIH by Sanitary-Epidemiological Stations. RESULTS: In 2014, a total of 29 foodborne botulism cases (including 17 laboratory confirmed) was reported; the annual incidence rate (0.08 per 100,000 population) increased slightly in comparison to previous year, but was similar to the median incidence for years 2008 to 2012. The highest incidence in the country was reported in Lubelskie province (0.33). Incidence in rural areas (0.09) was only slightly higher than the incidence in urban areas (0.06). Men, had more than 4 times higher incidence than women; the highest incidence rate (0.31) was observed among men in the age group of 20-24 years. Most cases were associated with consumption of different types of commercially canned meat. Home-made vegetable meat preserves were also a common vehicle. All cases were hospitalized. Two deaths related to the disease were reported. CONCLUSIONS: Since 2008, the epidemiological situation of foodborne botulism in the country remains stable with an average 30 cases per year and corresponding incidence rate of 0.08 per 100,000 population. However, in 2014 draws attention a significant number of cases with undetermined food vehicle and relatively high percentage of cases with no laboratory confirmation. Therefore, it is important to enhance epidemiological investigation as well as laboratory capacity for surveillance.

Legionellosis in Poland in 2013.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the article is to assess the epidemiological situation of legionellosis in Poland in 2013 in comparison to the preceding years. MATERIAL AND METHODS. The analysis of epidemiological situation was based on the data published in the annual bulletin: "Infectious diseases and poisonings in Poland in 2013" and its prior versions as well as the legionellosis case reports sent to the Department of Epidemiology of NIPH-NIH. RESULTS: In Poland, all cases of legionellosis, including Legionnaires' disease--a form of disease accompanied by pneumonia and mild, influenza-like form of infection--Pontiac fever are routinely reported to the surveillance. In 2013, a total of 11 legionellosis cases were reported (all 11 were cases of Legionnaires' disease and no one case of Pontiac fever); the incidence was 0.029 per 100,000 population which was a bit higher compared to the previous year but was 40 % lower from the median incidence for 2007-2011. The infections were reported in 7 provinces. The incidence in males (0.04 per 100,000) was slightly higher compared to females (0.02). No legionellosis outbreaks were registered--all infections were of sporadic nature. All cases were hospitalized., of these, seven were infected in the country, including three hospital acquired infections. Four infections were associated with travels abroad (one to Austria, one to Bulgaria, one to Germany and one to Italy). All the four cases connected with travel abroad survived., but 5 cases from 7 infected in Poland were fatal. The sanitary inspection reported that four fatal cases were over the age of 50, but one girl was 14 years old CONCLUSIONS: In 2013, no changes of fundamental features of legionellosis epidemiological situation in Poland were observed. It is recommended to enhance the surveillance for legionellosis, with emphasis on conducting environmental investigation in areas where infections have occurred.

Foodborne botulism in Poland in 2013.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study is to assess the epidemiology of foodborne botulism in Poland in 2013. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We reviewed surveillance data published in the annual bulletin "Infectious diseases and poisonings in Poland in 2013" and in previous publications, and botulism case reports for 2013 sent to the Department of Epidemiology NIPH-NIH by Sanitary-Epidemiological Stations. RESULTS: In 2013, a total of 24 foodborne botulism cases (including 8 laboratory confirmed cases) was reported, corresponding to the lowest annual incidence rate (0.06 per 100,000 population) since the introduction of botulism as mandatory notifiable disease. The highest incidence in the country was reported in Kujawsko-Pomorskie (0.19). Incidence in rural areas (0.09 per 100,000 population) was more than 2-fold higher than the incidence in urban areas (0.04). Men, had more than 3 times higher incidence than women; the highest incidence rate (0.29 per 100,000 population) was observed among men in the age group of 40-49 years. Most cases were associated with consumption of different types of commercially canned meat. Commercially canned fish was also a common vehicle. All cases were hospitalized. No deaths related to the disease were reported. CONCLUSIONS: In 2013, in Poland a downward trend in the incidence of foodborne botulism was maintained. Insufficient laboratory capacity remains a major weakness in national surveillance resulting in disproportionate reporting of cases meeting only clinical criteria and an epidemiological link. This situation clearly speaks for the need to improve laboratory capacity for surveillance.