Loss of the adipokine lipocalin-2 impairs satellite cell activation and skeletal muscle regeneration.

Lipocalin-2 (LCN2) is an adipokine previously described for its contribution to numerous processes, including innate immunity and energy metabolism. LCN2 has also been demonstrated to be an extracellular matrix (ECM) regulator through its association with the ECM protease matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). With the global rise in obesity and the associated comorbidities related to increasing adiposity, it is imperative to gain an understanding of the cross talk between adipose tissue and other metabolic tissues, such as skeletal muscle. Given the function of LCN2 on the ECM in other tissues and the importance of matrix remodeling in skeletal muscle regeneration, we examined the localization and expression of LCN2 in uninjured and regenerating wild-type skeletal muscle and assessed the impact of LCN2 deletion (LCN2-/-) on skeletal muscle repair following cardiotoxin injury. Though LCN2 was minimally present in uninjured skeletal muscle, its expression was increased significantly at 1 and 2 days postinjury, with expression present in Pax7-positive satellite cells. Although satellite cell content was unchanged, the ability of quiescent satellite cells to become activated was significantly impaired in LCN2-/- skeletal muscles. Skeletal muscle regeneration was also significantly compromised as evidenced by decreased embryonic myosin heavy chain expression and smaller regenerating myofiber areas. Consistent with a role for LCN2 in MMP-9 regulation, regenerating muscle also displayed a significant increase in fibrosis and lower ( P = 0.07) MMP-9 activity in LCN2-/- mice at 2 days postinjury. These data highlight a novel role for LCN2 in muscle regeneration and suggest that changes in adipokine expression can significantly impact skeletal muscle repair.

Activation of autophagy by globular adiponectin is required for muscle differentiation.

Regulated autophagy is a critical component for a healthy skeletal muscle mass, such that dysregulation of the autophagic processes correlates with severe myopathies. Thus, defining the biological molecules involved in the autophagic processes within skeletal muscle is of great importance. Here we demonstrate that globular adiponectin (gAd) activates autophagy in skeletal muscle myoblasts via an AMPK-dependent mechanism. Activation of autophagy through gAd promotes myoblast survival and apoptosis inhibition during serum starvation and the gAd-activated autophagy orchestrates the myogenic properties of the hormone. Consistent with this conclusion, inhibition of gAd-activated autophagy by both a pharmacological (chloroquine) or siRNA approach greatly inhibited muscle differentiation, as demonstrated by reductions in myosin heavy chain expression and myotube formation. Further support for the role of adiponectin in autophagy comes from the skeletal muscles of adiponectin KO mice which display decreased LC3 II expression and a myopathic phenotype (heterogeneous fiber sizes, numerous central nuclei). Overall, these findings demonstrate that gAd activates autophagy in myoblasts and that gAd-activated autophagy drives the myogenic properties of this hormone.

The NLRP3 inflammasome contributes to sarcopenia and lower muscle glycolytic potential in old mice.

The mechanisms underpinning decreased skeletal muscle strength and slowing of movement during aging are ill-defined. "Inflammaging," increased inflammation with advancing age, may contribute to aspects of sarcopenia, but little is known about the participatory immune components. We discovered that aging was associated with increased caspase-1 activity in mouse skeletal muscle. We hypothesized that the caspase-1-containing NLRP3 inflammasome contributes to sarcopenia in mice. Male C57BL/6J wild-type (WT) and NLRP3-/- mice were aged to 10 (adult) and 24 mo (old). NLRP3-/- mice were protected from decreased muscle mass (relative to body mass) and decreased size of type IIB and IIA myofibers, which occurred between 10 and 24 mo of age in WT mice. Old NLRP3-/- mice also had increased relative muscle strength and endurance and were protected from age-related increases in the number of myopathic fibers. We found no evidence of age-related or NLRP3-dependent changes in markers of systemic inflammation. Increased caspase-1 activity was associated with GAPDH proteolysis and reduced GAPDH enzymatic activity in skeletal muscles from old WT mice. Aging did not alter caspase-1 activity, GAPDH proteolysis, or GAPDH activity in skeletal muscles of NLRP3-/- mice. Our results show that the NLRP3 inflammasome participates in age-related loss of muscle glycolytic potential. Deletion of NLRP3 mitigates both the decline in glycolytic myofiber size and the reduced activity of glycolytic enzymes in muscle during aging. We propose that the etiology of sarcopenia involves direct communication between immune responses and metabolic flux in skeletal muscle.

Muscle-specific AMPK ß1ß2-null mice display a myopathy due to loss of capillary density in nonpostural muscles.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a master regulator of metabolism. While muscle-specific AMPK ß1ß2 double-knockout (ß1ß2M-KO) mice display alterations in metabolic and mitochondrial capacity, their severe exercise intolerance suggested a secondary contributor to the observed phenotype. We find that tibialis anterior (TA), but not soleus, muscles of sedentary ß1ß2M-KO mice display a significant myopathy (decreased myofiber areas, increased split and necrotic myofibers, and increased centrally nucleated myofibers. A mitochondrial- and fiber-type-specific etiology to the myopathy was ruled out. However, ß1ß2M-KO TA muscles displayed significant (P<0.05) increases in platelet aggregation and apoptosis within myofibers and surrounding interstitium (P<0.05). These changes correlated with a 45% decrease in capillary density (P<0.05). We hypothesized that the ß1ß2M-KO myopathy in resting muscle resulted from impaired AMPK-nNOSµ signaling, causing increased platelet aggregation, impaired vasodilation, and, ultimately, ischemic injury. Consistent with this hypothesis, AMPK-specific phosphorylation (Ser1446) of nNOSµ was decreased in ß1ß2M-KO compared to wild-type (WT) mice. The AMPK-nNOSµ relationship was further demonstrated by administration of 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide 1-ß-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR) to ß1ß2-MKO muscles and C2C12 myotubes. AICAR significantly increased nNOSµ phosphorylation and nitric oxide production (P<0.05) within minutes of administration in WT muscles and C2C12 myotubes but not in ß1ß2M-KO muscles. These findings highlight the importance of the AMPK-nNOSµ pathway in resting skeletal muscle.

Decreased Satellite Cell Number and Function in Humans and Mice With Type 1 Diabetes Is the Result of Altered Notch Signaling.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) negatively influences skeletal muscle health; however, its effect on muscle satellite cells (SCs) remains largely unknown. SCs from samples from rodents (Akita) and human subjects with T1D were examined to discern differences in SC density and functionality compared with samples from their respective control subjects. Examination of the Notch pathway was undertaken to investigate its role in changes to SC functionality. Compared with controls, Akita mice demonstrated increased muscle damage after eccentric exercise along with a decline in SC density and myogenic capacity. Quantification of components of the Notch signaling pathway revealed a persistent activation of Notch signaling in Akita SCs, which could be reversed with the Notch inhibitor DAPT. Similar to Akita samples, skeletal muscle from human subjects with T1D displayed a significant reduction in SC content, and the Notch ligand, DLL1, was significantly increased compared with control subjects, supporting the dysregulated Notch pathway observed in Akita muscles. These data indicate that persistent activation in Notch signaling impairs SC functionality in the T1D muscle, resulting in a decline in SC content. Given the vital role played by the SC in muscle growth and maintenance, these findings suggest that impairments in SC capacities play a primary role in the skeletal muscle myopathy that characterizes T1D.

Myostatin inhibition therapy for insulin-deficient type 1 diabetes.

While Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) is characterized by hypoinsulinemia and hyperglycemia, persons with T1DM also develop insulin resistance. Recent studies have demonstrated that insulin resistance in T1DM is a primary mediator of the micro and macrovascular complications that invariably develop in this chronic disease. Myostatin acts to attenuate muscle growth and has been demonstrated to be elevated in streptozotocin-induced diabetic models. We hypothesized that a reduction in mRNA expression of myostatin within a genetic T1DM mouse model would improve skeletal muscle health, resulting in a larger, more insulin sensitive muscle mass. To that end, Akita diabetic mice were crossed with Myostatin(Ln/Ln) mice to ultimately generate a novel mouse line. Our data support the hypothesis that decreased skeletal muscle expression of myostatin mRNA prevented the loss of muscle mass observed in T1DM. Furthermore, reductions in myostatin mRNA increased Glut1 and Glut4 protein expression and glucose uptake in response to an insulin tolerance test (ITT). These positive changes lead to significant reductions in resting blood glucose levels as well as pronounced reductions in associated diabetic symptoms, even in the absence of exogenous insulin. Taken together, this study provides a foundation for considering myostatin inhibition as an adjuvant therapy in T1DM as a means to improve insulin sensitivity and blood glucose management.

Skeletal muscle as a therapeutic target for delaying type 1 diabetic complications.

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is a chronic autoimmune disease targeting the pancreatic beta-cells and rendering the person hypoinsulinemic and hyperglycemic. Despite exogenous insulin therapy, individuals with T1DM will invariably develop long-term complications such as blindness, kidney failure and cardiovascular disease. Though often overlooked, skeletal muscle is also adversely affected in T1DM, with both physical and metabolic derangements reported. As the largest metabolic organ in the body, impairments to skeletal muscle health in T1DM would impact insulin sensitivity, glucose/lipid disposal and basal metabolic rate and thus affect the ability of persons with T1DM to manage their disease. In this review, we discuss the impact of T1DM on skeletal muscle health with a particular focus on the proposed mechanisms involved. We then identify and discuss established and potential adjuvant therapies which, in association with insulin therapy, would improve the health of skeletal muscle in those with T1DM and thereby improve disease management- ultimately delaying the onset and severity of other long-term diabetic complications.

Diet-induced obesity impairs muscle satellite cell activation and muscle repair through alterations in hepatocyte growth factor signaling.

A healthy skeletal muscle mass is essential in attenuating the complications of obesity. Importantly, healthy muscle function is maintained through adequate repair following overuse and injury. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of diet-induced obesity (DIO) on skeletal muscle repair and the functionality of the muscle satellite cell (SC) population. Male C57BL/6J mice were fed a standard chow or high-fat diet (60% kcal fat; DIO) for 8 weeks. Muscles from DIO mice subjected to cardiotoxin injury displayed attenuated muscle regeneration, as indicated by prolonged necrosis, delayed expression of MyoD and Myogenin, elevated collagen content, and persistent embryonic myosin heavy chain expression. While no significant differences in SC content were observed, SCs from DIO muscles did not activate normally nor did they respond to exogenous hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) despite similar receptor (cMet) density. Furthermore, HGF release from crushed muscle was significantly less than that from muscles of chow fed mice. This study demonstrates that deficits in muscle repair are present in DIO, and the impairments in the functionality of the muscle SC population as a result of altered HGF/c-met signaling are contributors to the delayed regeneration.

Inhibition of PAI-1 Via PAI-039 Improves Dermal Wound Closure in Diabetes.

Diabetes impairs the ability to heal cutaneous wounds, leading to hospitalization, amputations, and death. Patients with diabetes experience elevated levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1), regardless of their glycemic control. It has been demonstrated that PAI-1-deficient mice exhibit improved cutaneous wound healing, and that PAI-1 inhibition improves skeletal muscle repair in mice with type 1 diabetes mellitus, leading us to hypothesize that pharmacologically mediated reductions in PAI-1 using PAI-039 would normalize cutaneous wound healing in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic (STZ-diabetic) mice. To simulate the human condition of variations in wound care, wounds were aggravated or minimally handled postinjury. Following cutaneous injury, PAI-039 was orally administered twice daily for 10 days. Compared with nondiabetic mice, wounds in STZ-diabetic mice healed more slowly. Wound site aggravation exacerbated this deficit. PAI-1 inhibition had no effect on dermal collagen levels or wound bed size. PAI-039 treatment failed to improve angiogenesis in the wounds of STZ-diabetic mice and blunted angiogenesis in the wounds of nondiabetic mice. Importantly, PAI-039 treatment significantly improved epidermal cellular migration and wound re-epithelialization compared with vehicle-treated STZ-diabetic mice. These findings support the use of PAI-039 as a novel therapeutic agent to improve diabetic wound closure and demonstrate the primary mechanism of its action to be related to epidermal closure.

Diabetic myopathy: impact of diabetes mellitus on skeletal muscle progenitor cells.

Diabetes mellitus is defined as a group of metabolic diseases that are associated with the presence of a hyperglycemic state due to impairments in insulin release and/or function. While the development of each form of diabetes (Type 1 or Type 2) drastically differs, resultant pathologies often overlap. In each diabetic condition, a failure to maintain healthy muscle is often observed, and is termed diabetic myopathy. This significant, but often overlooked, complication is believed to contribute to the progression of additional diabetic complications due to the vital importance of skeletal muscle for our physical and metabolic well-being. While studies have investigated the link between changes to skeletal muscle metabolic health following diabetes mellitus onset (particularly Type 2 diabetes mellitus), few have examined the negative impact of diabetes mellitus on the growth and reparative capacities of skeletal muscle that often coincides with disease development. Importantly, evidence is accumulating that the muscle progenitor cell population (particularly the muscle satellite cell population) is also negatively affected by the diabetic environment, and as such, likely contributes to the declining skeletal muscle health observed in diabetes mellitus. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge surrounding the influence of diabetes mellitus on skeletal muscle growth and repair, with a particular emphasis on the impact of diabetes mellitus on skeletal muscle progenitor cell populations.

Impaired macrophage and satellite cell infiltration occurs in a muscle-specific fashion following injury in diabetic skeletal muscle.

BACKGROUND: Systemic elevations in PAI-1 suppress the fibrinolytic pathway leading to poor collagen remodelling and delayed regeneration of tibialis anterior (TA) muscles in type-1 diabetic Akita mice. However, how impaired collagen remodelling was specifically attenuating regeneration in Akita mice remained unknown. Furthermore, given intrinsic differences between muscle groups, it was unclear if the reparative responses between muscle groups were different. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Here we reveal that diabetic Akita muscles display differential regenerative responses with the TA and gastrocnemius muscles exhibiting reduced regenerating myofiber area compared to wild-type mice, while soleus muscles displayed no difference between animal groups following injury. Collagen levels in TA and gastrocnemius, but not soleus, were significantly increased post-injury versus controls. At 5 days post-injury, when degenerating/necrotic regions were present in both animal groups, Akita TA and gastrocnemius muscles displayed reduced macrophage and satellite cell infiltration and poor myofiber formation. By 10 days post-injury, necrotic regions were absent in wild-type TA but persisted in Akita TA. In contrast, Akita soleus exhibited no impairment in any of these measures compared to wild-type soleus. In an effort to define how impaired collagen turnover was attenuating regeneration in Akita TA, a PAI-1 inhibitor (PAI-039) was orally administered to Akita mice following cardiotoxin injury. PAI-039 administration promoted macrophage and satellite cell infiltration into necrotic areas of the TA and gastrocnemius. Importantly, soleus muscles exhibit the highest inducible expression of MMP-9 following injury, providing a mechanism for normative collagen degradation and injury recovery in this muscle despite systemically elevated PAI-1. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest the mechanism underlying how impaired collagen remodelling in type-1 diabetes results in delayed regeneration is an impairment in macrophage infiltration and satellite cell recruitment to degenerating areas; a phenomena that occurs differentially between muscle groups.