Striving for safety: communicating and deciding in sociotechnical systems.

How do communications and decisions impact the safety of sociotechnical systems? This paper frames this question in the context of a dynamic system of nested sub-systems. Communications are related to the construct of observability (i.e. how components integrate information to assess the state with respect to local and global constraints). Decisions are related to the construct of controllability (i.e. how component sub-systems act to meet local and global safety goals). The safety dynamics of sociotechnical systems are evaluated as a function of the coupling between observability and controllability across multiple closed-loop components. Two very different domains (nuclear power and the limited service food industry) provide examples to illustrate how this framework might be applied. While the dynamical systems framework does not offer simple prescriptions for achieving safety, it does provide guides for exploring specific systems to consider the potential fit between organisational structures and work demands, and for generalising across different systems regarding how safety can be managed. PRACTITIONER SUMMARY: While offering no simple prescriptions about how to achieve safety in sociotechnical systems, this paper develops a theoretical framework based on dynamical systems theory as a practical guide for generalising from basic research to work domains and for generalising across alternative work domains to better understand how patterns of communication and decision-making impact system safety.

Sociotechnical approaches to workplace safety: Research needs and opportunities.

The sociotechnical systems perspective offers intriguing and potentially valuable insights into problems associated with workplace safety. While formal sociotechnical systems thinking originated in the 1950s, its application to the analysis and design of sustainable, safe working environments has not been fully developed. To that end, a Hopkinton Conference was organised to review and summarise the state of knowledge in the area and to identify research priorities. A group of 26 international experts produced collaborative articles for this special issue of Ergonomics, and each focused on examining a key conceptual, methodological and/or theoretical issue associated with sociotechnical systems and safety. In this concluding paper, we describe the major conference themes and recommendations. These are organised into six topic areas: (1) Concepts, definitions and frameworks, (2) defining research methodologies, (3) modelling and simulation, (4) communications and decision-making, (5) sociotechnical attributes of safe and unsafe systems and (6) potential future research directions for sociotechnical systems research. PRACTITIONER SUMMARY: Sociotechnical complexity, a characteristic of many contemporary work environments, presents potential safety risks that traditional approaches to workplace safety may not adequately address. In this paper, we summarise the investigations of a group of international researchers into questions associated with the application of sociotechnical systems thinking to improve worker safety.

Editorial: emerging issues in sociotechnical systems thinking and workplace safety.

The burden of on-the-job accidents and fatalities and the harm of associated human suffering continue to present an important challenge for safety researchers and practitioners. While significant improvements have been achieved in recent decades, the workplace accident rate remains unacceptably high. This has spurred interest in the development of novel research approaches, with particular interest in the systemic influences of social/organisational and technological factors. In response, the Hopkinton Conference on Sociotechnical Systems and Safety was organised to assess the current state of knowledge in the area and to identify research priorities. Over the course of several months prior to the conference, leading international experts drafted collaborative, state-of-the-art reviews covering various aspects of sociotechnical systems and safety. These papers, presented in this special issue, cover topics ranging from the identification of key concepts and definitions to sociotechnical characteristics of safe and unsafe organisations. This paper provides an overview of the conference and introduces key themes and topics. PRACTITIONER SUMMARY: Sociotechnical approaches to workplace safety are intended to draw practitioners' attention to the critical influence that systemic social/organisational and technological factors exert on safety-relevant outcomes. This paper introduces major themes addressed in the Hopkinton Conference within the context of current workplace safety research and practice challenges.

Where to focus? Insights from safety personnel and external safety consultants on lessons learned about safety climate interventions - A qualitative approach.

INTRODUCTION: Safety climate is important for promoting workplace safety and health. However, there is a dearth of empirical research on the effective ways of planning, designing, and implementing safety climate interventions, especially regarding what is going to be changed and improved. To address this gap, the present study sought to extract a comprehensive pool of compiled suggestions for safety climate intervention based on qualitative interviews with professionals in occupational safety and health management from potentially hazardous industries. METHOD: A series of systematic semi-structured interviews, guided by a comprehensive sociotechnical systems framework, were conducted with company safety personnel (n = 26) and external safety consultants (n = 15) of 21 companies from various industries. The taxonomy of five work system components of the sociotechnical systems approach served as overarching themes, representing different areas of improvement in an organization for occupational safety and health promotion, with an aim of enhancing safety climate. RESULTS: Of the 36 codes identified, seven codes were based on the theme of external environment work system, four were based on the theme of internal environment work system, five were based on the theme of organizational and managerial structure work system, 14 codes were based on the theme of personnel subsystem, and six were based on the theme of technical subsystem. CONCLUSIONS: Safety climate intervention strategies might be most commonly based upon the principles of human resource management (i.e., codes based on the personnel subsystem theme and organizational and managerial structure work system theme). Meanwhile, numerous attributes of external/internal environment work system and technical subsystem can be jointly improved to bolster safety climate in a holistic way. Practical Applications: More systematic and organized management of safety climate would be available when various interrelated codes pertinent to a given context are carefully considered for a safety climate intervention.

A sociotechnical systems approach to enhance safety climate in the trucking industry: Results of an in-depth investigation.

The purpose of this study was to develop a methodology that extends safety climate beyond an overall score by using the framework of macroergonomics to examine the entire system in a more comprehensive manner. The study is discussed in two papers: one paper describes the study methodology in detail (Murphy, Robertson, Huang, Jeffries, & Dainoff, in press), and the current paper describes the results of the study. Multiple methods were combined to create a systems approach, and those methods include the critical incident technique, contextual inquiries with functional role diagrams, and affinity mapping. Key informants in the trucking industry identified 19 themes that affect safety. The themes ranged from balancing work and family/personal time, the company's policy vs. practice, respecting the job of the driver, and active listening and meaningful feedback. The most prominent themes were related to the workers and their activities; the internal environment, including psychosocial job design elements; and organizational design. Such information can be used to design interventions to change the safety climate of an organization in order to reduce negative safety outcomes.

A sociotechnical systems approach to enhance safety climate in the trucking industry: Development of a methodology.

The systems approach is increasingly used as a framework within which to examine safety climate. Utilizing a macroergonomics approach to design work systems can help identify aspects of human-technology-organization interfaces that impact workers' perceptions of safety, both positively and negatively. Such an approach also supplements traditional uses of safety climate as a leading indicator of safety and helps expand research toward an approach that can determine problems impacting safety. The purpose of this study was to develop a methodology that extends safety climate beyond just an overall score by using the framework of macroergonomics to examine the entire system in a more comprehensive manner. The proposed methodology can be used as a way to identify gaps in the specific work system, and this information can be used to design interventions to change the safety climate, and ultimately the culture, of an organization in order to reduce negative safety outcomes.

A sociotechnical approach to occupational safety.

We present an integrated conceptual framework for improving occupational safety. This framework is based on sociotechnical principles and is based on the premise that occupational safety should not be an isolated function but rather seen as directly related to an organizational mission which combines performance and well-being. As such, a fundamental goal is to achieve joint optimization between social and technical components of the system. This framework consists of four basic questions: (1) How can we determine the overall level of safety in the system? (2) How can we determine what kinds of interventions would improve safety? (3) How can we determine if the organization is ready to implement safety interventions? (4) How can we determine the best pathway for implementing safety interventions? A sociotechnical approach implies that safety must be considered from a complexity perspective as an emergent property. Hence, a variety of methodological approaches is required.

The effect of chiropractic adjustments on movement time: a pilot study using Fitts Law.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of chiropractic adjustments on movement time using Fitts Law. METHODS: This was a prospective, randomized controlled trial. Ten patients from a private chiropractic practice participated. Participants in the treatment group received high-velocity, low-amplitude chiropractic adjustments to areas of joint dysfunction (chiropractic subluxation). A nonintervention group was used to control for improvement resulting from time and practice effects. Movement time was measured as participants moved a cursor onto a target appearing on a computer screen. A range of target widths and target distances were used to vary the index of difficulty. RESULTS: All participants in the experimental group had significantly improved movement times following spinal adjustments compared with only 1 participant in the control group. The average improvement in movement time for the experimental group was 183 ms, a 9.2% improvement, whereas the average improvement in movement time for the control group was 29 ms, a 1.7% improvement. The difference (improvement) scores after the intervention were significantly greater for the chiropractic group compared with the control group as measured by a 2-tailed independent samples t test (P < .05). CONCLUSION: The results of this study demonstrated a significant improvement in movement time with chiropractic care. These results suggest that spinal adjustments may influence motor behavior.

Strategies of international cooperation in an international project: advantages and pitfalls.

The MEPS (musculoskeletal--eyestrain--psychosocial--stress) study involved an extensive degree of multidisciplinary and multicultural cooperation. The objective was to examine the effects of multiple ergonomic interventions on visual, musculoskeletal, postural, and psychosocial outcomes amongst operators of visual display terminals (VDTs). The inherent complexity of a comprehensive ergonomic investigation requires participation of researchers from a variety of disciplines, as well as comparisons among populations with different geographical and cultural backgrounds. The design and execution of the resulting research protocol presents a number of challenges. This paper discusses the advantages and pitfalls associated with multidisciplinary multinational cooperation. Advantages include the necessity for development of a common language and perspective providing a basis for future collaboration. Pitfalls include logistic and coordination difficulties associated with conducting standardized procedures in different locations, as well as the inherent potential for professional conflict. It is argued that such pitfalls ought to be understood and integrated into the project planning process.

The effect of an ergonomic intervention on musculoskeletal, psychosocial, and visual strain of VDT data entry work: the United States part of the international study.

The United States MEPS (musculoskeletal--eyestrain--psychosocial--stress) study consisted of 1 group of 28 female data entry operators. The intervention was in 3 parts: workstation redesign (including advanced ergonomic chairs, motorized adjustable workstations, advanced adjustable keyboards, adjustable copyholders, adjustable footrests, monitor support surfaces) and ergonomic training/coaching and corrective lenses. After the intervention, statistically significant reductions in physical signs (trigger points, neck and shoulder mobility), subjective reports of intensity and frequency of musculoskeletal pain, and subjective reports of visual problems were observed. Static load during the work sample, as assessed by experts, improved after the intervention as did measured postural angles of head and trunk and subjective assessment of users of ergonomic characteristics of the workplaces. For all of these measures, improvements observed 1 month after intervention were also observed in the 1-year follow-up. Trapezius load, as assessed by electromyography (EMG), decreased after intervention, but then increased in the follow-up. The increase was interpreted as a calibration problem.

A cross-country comparison of short- and long-term effects of an ergonomic intervention on musculoskeletal discomfort, eyestrain and psychosocial stress in VDT operators: selected aspects of the international project.

Three groups of data entry female visual display terminal (VDT) workers from Norway (n = 30), Poland (n = 33) and the USA (n = 29) were compared. Before intervention, the Norwegian group reported more neck pain compared with the Polish group. The Polish group reported less shoulder pain than both the U.S. and the Norwegian groups. The clinical examination documented fewer symptoms and signs of musculoskeletal illness among the Polish participants compared with the Norwegian and the U.S. groups. After intervention, the Norwegian group reported a reduction in neck pain while the U.S. group reported a reduction in shoulder pain. The Polish group reported an increase in neck, shoulder and forearm pain at follow-up compared to after intervention. The Polish group recorded higher flexion of the upper arm at follow-up parallel with an increase of pain in the upper part of the body. Visual discomfort showed variable results in the 3 countries.

The effect of an ergonomic intervention on musculoskeletal, psychosocial and visual strain of VDT entry work: organization and methodology of the international study.

This special issue of the International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics (JOSE) reports the results from an extensive multinational and multidisciplinary collaborative investigation of the impacts on visual display terminal (VDT) work of musculoskeletal, visual, ergonomic, and psychosocial factors. For brevity, this effort has been referred to as the MEPS project (musculoskeletal--eyestrain--psychosocial--stress). This paper lays out the basic methodological structure of the study. The study was conducted in 4 countries utilizing VDT data entry workers as the primary subject population. A battery of objective and subject assessment measures, including muscle load, visual function, physical and visual strain, postural, ergonomic and psychosocial factors, were assessed at 3 different points in time. A pre-test was given prior to an ergonomic intervention. Two post-tests were given 1 month and 1 year after the ergonomic intervention.

On-board safety monitoring systems for driving: review, knowledge gaps, and framework.

INTRODUCTION: Fatal highway incidents remain the leading type of fatal work-related event, carrying tremendous personal, social, and economic costs. While employers with a fixed worksite can observe and interact directly with workers in an effort to promote safety and reduce risk, employers with workers who operate a motor vehicle as part of their job have fewer options. New technologies such as on-board safety monitoring systems offer the potential to further improve safety. These technologies allow vehicle owners to collect safety-specific information related to a driver's on-the-road behavior and performance. While many such devices are being developed and implemented in both commercial fleets and private vehicles, the scientific examination of these devices has lagged by comparison. METHOD: In the current paper, we: (a) describe the general features and functionality of current generations of on-board monitoring devices and how they might impact various driver behaviors; (b) review the current state of scientific knowledge specific to on-board devices; (c) discuss knowledge gaps and potential areas for future research, borrowing from the related domain of computer-based electronic performance monitoring (EPM); and (d) propose a framework that can be used to explore some of the human-system interactions pertaining to monitoring systems. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Motor vehicle crashes can carry tremendous costs for employers, in terms of injury, disability, and loss of potentially productive work years. New technologies can offer tremendous benefits in terms of promoting safer on-the-road behaviors.

Effect of a back belt on reaching postures.

OBJECTIVE: The present study investigated the effect of a back belt on reach actions. SUBJECTS: Sixteen undergraduate college students (8 male students, 8 female students) ranging in age from 18 to 22 years. Thirteen subjects were included in the final analysis. SETTING: The Department of Psychology at Miami University, Oxford, Ohio METHODS: Using a well-established set of procedures developed in our laboratory for studying reaching, seated adult participants reached for and retrieved an object placed at various distances from them. Reach distances included values both closer than and farther than each subject's maximum seated reach. The reach task had 2 conditions: picking up and retrieving a small block and skewering and retrieving a small bead with a needle. For each task condition, each subject either wore the belt or did not use a belt. RESULTS: Results indicate that when subjects wore the belt while reaching, they tended to have initial transition points (sitting to nonsitting) closer to their bodies than while not wearing the belt. That is, for a distant object, subjects were more likely to raise their bodies out of the chair rather than perform an extreme seated reach, possibly acting to preserve a greater margin of safety. CONCLUSIONS: The back belt consistently modified reaching postures by limiting extreme ranges of motion during a task that required enhanced stability. Furthermore, the methodology and analysis presented in this article when applied to chiropractic will allow us to begin thoughtful investigation of the effects of chiropractic adjustments on postural transitions and margin of safety.