HIF and ER stress are involved in TGFß1-mediated wound closure of alveolar epithelial cells.

Purpose: Alveolar epithelium dysfunction is associated with a very large spectrum of disease and an abnormal repair capacity of the airway epithelium has been proposed to explain the pathogenesis of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF). Following epithelium insult, the damaged cells will activate pathways implicated in the repair process, including proliferation and acquisition of migratory capacities to cover the denuded basement membrane. Induction of Endoplasmic Reticulum stress may be implicated in this process. Interestingly, ER stress excessive activation has been proposed as a central event associated with aberrant repair process and cellular dysfunction observed in IPF. Methods: We study by wound healing assay the molecular targets associated with Alveolar Epithelial Cells (AEC) repair. Results: We demonstrate that the wound recovery of AEC is associated with TGF-ß1 signaling and increased transcriptional activity of ER stress and HIF-dependent genes. We further demonstrated that inhibition of TGF-ß1 signaling, CHOP expression or HIF-1 expression, limits AECs wound closure. Conclusion: the use of pharmacological drugs targeting the ER/HIF-1 axis could be an attractive approach to limit AEC dysregulation in pathological condition, and confirmed a critical role of theses factor in response to alveolar injury.

ER Stress is Involved in Epithelial-To-Mesenchymal Transition of Alveolar Epithelial Cells Exposed to a Hypoxic Microenvironment.

BACKGROUND: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic, progressive and fatal interstitial lung disease of unknown origin. Alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) play an important role in the fibrotic process as they undergo sustained endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and may acquire a mesenchymal phenotype through epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), two phenomena that could be induced by localized alveolar hypoxia. Here we investigated the potential links between hypoxia, ER stress and EMT in AECs. METHODS: ER stress and EMT markers were assessed by immunohistochemistry, western blot and qPCR analysis, both in vivo in rat lungs exposed to normoxia or hypoxia (equivalent to 8% O2) for 48 h, and in vitro in primary rat AECs exposed to normoxia or hypoxia (1.5% O2) for 2⁻6 days. RESULTS: Hypoxia induced expression of mesenchymal markers, pro-EMT transcription factors, and the activation of ER stress markers both in vivo in rat lungs, and in vitro in AECs. In vitro, pharmacological inhibition of ER stress by 4-PBA limited hypoxia-induced EMT. Calcium chelation or hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) inhibition also prevented EMT induction under hypoxic condition. CONCLUSIONS: Hypoxia and intracellular calcium are both involved in EMT induction of AECs, mainly through the activation of ER stress and HIF signaling pathways.

Blood fibrocytes are recruited during acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease through a CXCR4-dependent pathway.

BACKGROUND: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by peribronchial fibrosis. The chronic course of COPD is worsened by recurrent acute exacerbations. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to evaluate the recruitment of blood fibrocytes in patients with COPD during exacerbations and, subsequently, to identify potential mechanisms implicated in such recruitment. METHODS: Using flow cytometry, we quantified circulating fibrocytes and characterized their chemokine receptor expression in 54 patients with COPD examined during an acute exacerbation (V1) and 2 months afterward (V2) and in 40 control subjects. The role of the chemokines CXCL12 and CCL11 in fibrocyte migration was investigated by using a chemotaxis assay. Patients were followed for up to 3 years after V1. RESULTS: We demonstrated a significantly increased number of circulating fibrocytes at V1 compared with control subjects. The number of circulating fibrocytes decreased at V2. A high percentage of circulating fibrocytes during exacerbation was associated with increased risk of death. The percentage of fibrocytes at V2 was negatively correlated with FEV1, forced vital capacity, FEV1/forced vital capacity ratio, transfer lung capacity of carbon monoxide, and Pao2. Fibrocytes highly expressed CXCR4 and CCR3, the chemokine receptors for CXCL12 and CCL11, respectively. Fibrocytes collected from patients with COPD at V1 had increased chemotactic migration in response to CXCL12 but not to CCL11 compared with those from control subjects. Plerixafor, a CXCR4 antagonist, decreased fibrocyte migration to plasma from patients with exacerbating COPD. CONCLUSION: Blood fibrocytes are recruited during COPD exacerbations and related to mortality and low lung function. The CXCL12/CXCR4 axis is involved in such fibrocyte recruitment (Firebrob study; ClinicalTrials NCT01196832).

Intermittent Hypoxia Increases the Severity of Bleomycin-Induced Lung Injury in Mice.

BACKGROUND: Severe obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) with chronic intermittent hypoxia (IH) is common in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Here, we evaluated the impact of IH on bleomycin- (BLM-) induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. METHODS: C57BL/6J mice received intratracheal BLM or saline and were exposed to IH (40 cycles/hour; FiO2 nadir: 6%; 8 hours/day) or intermittent air (IA). In the four experimental groups, we evaluated (i) survival; (ii) alveolar inflammation, pulmonary edema, lung oxidative stress, and antioxidant enzymes; (iii) lung cell apoptosis; and (iv) pulmonary fibrosis. RESULTS: Survival at day 21 was lower in the BLM-IH group (p < 0.05). Pulmonary fibrosis was more severe at day 21 in BLM-IH mice, as assessed by lung collagen content (p = 0.02) and histology. At day 4, BLM-IH mice developed a more severe neutrophilic alveolitis, (p < 0.001). Lung oxidative stress was observed, and superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase expression was decreased in BLM-IH mice (p < 0.05 versus BLM-IA group). At day 8, pulmonary edema was observed and lung cell apoptosis was increased in the BLM-IH group. CONCLUSION: These results show that exposure to chronic IH increases mortality, lung inflammation, and lung fibrosis in BLM-treated mice. This study raises the question of the worsening impact of severe OSA in IPF patients.

HIF-1α triggers ER stress and CHOP-mediated apoptosis in alveolar epithelial cells, a key event in pulmonary fibrosis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) stress of alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) is recognized as a key event of cell dysfunction in pulmonary fibrosis (PF). However, the mechanisms leading to AECs ER stress and ensuing unfolded protein response (UPR) pathways in idiopathic PF (IPF) remain unclear. We hypothesized that alveolar hypoxic microenvironment would generate ER stress and AECs apoptosis through the hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α). Combining ex vivo, in vivo and in vitro experiments, we investigated the effects of hypoxia on the UPR pathways and ER stress-mediated apoptosis, and consecutively the mechanisms linking hypoxia, HIF-1α, UPR and apoptosis. HIF-1α and the pro-apoptotic ER stress marker C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) were co-expressed in hyperplastic AECs from bleomycin-treated mice and IPF lungs, not in controls. Hypoxic exposure of rat lungs or primary rat AECs induced HIF-1α, CHOP and apoptosis markers expression. In primary AECs, hypoxia activated UPR pathways. Pharmacological ER stress inhibitors and pharmacological inhibition or silencing of HIF-1α both prevented hypoxia-induced upregulation of CHOP and apoptosis. Interestingly, overexpression of HIF-1α in normoxic AECs increased UPR pathways transcription factors activities, and CHOP expression. These results indicate that hypoxia and HIF-1α can trigger ER stress and CHOP-mediated apoptosis in AECs, suggesting their potential contribution to the development of IPF.