MRI of the live fish brain at 3 Tesla: Feasibility, technique and interspecies anatomic variations.

Advances in aquatic animal medicine and continued growth of the fish hobbyist and aquaculture communities have led to a developing interest in antemortem diagnostic imaging of aquatic species. The aims of this prospective, pilot study were to determine whether advanced neuroimaging can be safely achieved in live fish using clinically available equipment, to optimize imaging parameters, and to develop a comparative MRI atlas of a few fish species of economic or research value. Two each of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), koi (Cyprinus rubrofuscus), and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) of at least 30 cm in length were individually anesthetized for 3 Tesla (3T) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain. All fish achieved an adequate anesthetic level for prolonged immobilization during imaging. Diagnostic quality images were obtained for all subjects; however, the spatial resolution was maximized with larger fish. Imaging protocols were optimized for standard neuroimaging sequences. Additionally, inversion times for fluid-attenuation inversion recovery (FLAIR) sequences were adapted to the naturally high protein content of fish pericerebral fluid. Following imaging, the fish successfully recovered from anesthesia, were humanely euthanized, and were immediately processed to assess brain histopathology. Necropsy confirmed the sex and health status of each fish. A limited comparative MRI atlas was created of the brains of these species for clinical reference. Findings from the current study supported the use of 3T MRI as an adjunct diagnostic test for fish with suspected neurologic disease and provided a limited anatomic atlas of the teleost brain for use as a reference.

Use of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging to assess a case of spinal injury in a Showa koi Cyprinus carpio.

OBJECTIVE: A privately owned, 4-year-old female Showa koi (ornamental variant of Common Carp Cyprinus carpio) was presented for erratic swimming, air gasping, water spitting, and abnormal orientation in the water column. Initial physical examination revealed an obese patient with no external abnormalities except a small plaque localized to filaments on a right gill hemibranch. METHODS: The fish was anesthetized using AQUI-S 20E (10% eugenol solution) at 50 mg/L to facilitate diagnostic evaluation. Biopsy of the gill lesion yielded no significant findings. Whole-body computed tomography confirmed an excess of adipose tissue and mild scoliosis, with narrowing of the 10th-11th intervertebral space. A weight loss plan and need for repeat assessment were recommended. RESULT: The patient's original abnormal behaviors resolved over the following weeks, but it subsequently became hyporexic and depressed. Full-body magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed extensive alteration of vertebral centra, with multifocal compression of the spinal cord. Due to the patient's declining clinical condition and the grave prognosis based on MRI findings, the patient was humanely euthanized. CONCLUSION: Postmortem examination showed severe transmural myelomalacia associated with a vertebral subluxation. This case demonstrates the practical application of advanced cross-sectional imaging that has not been commonly afforded to fish or other lower vertebrates.

BAYLISASCARIS PROCYONIS LARVA MIGRANS IN TWO CAPTIVE NORTH AMERICAN BEAVERS (CASTOR CANADENSIS).

Baylisascaris procyonis larva migrans was diagnosed in two North American beavers ( Castor canadensis ) belonging to a zoological park in Clarke County, Georgia. Both beavers presented with neurological signs. One beaver died naturally and despite attempted treatment, the other beaver was euthanatized because of severe clinical signs and poor prognosis. Histologic evaluation of the beavers revealed evidence of parasitic migration characterized by several lesions, including eosinophilic granulomas in various organs, as well as necrotizing eosinophilic and lymphoplasmacytic to granulomatous polioencephalitis, leukoencephalitis and cervical leukomyelitis. This represents the first confirmed case of B. procyonis larva migrans in beaver and the first non-raccoon ( Procyon lotor ) host in the southeastern United States. This report highlights the need for clinicians and diagnosticians to consider baylisascariasis in animals with compatible clinical signs. Preventative measures should be considered for captive animals, because early diagnosis of B. procyonis is challenging, and treatment is often unrewarding.

Endoscopic Removal of Gastrointestinal Foreign Bodies in Two African Grey Parrots ( Psittacus erithacus) and a Hyacinth Macaw ( Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus).

Two African grey parrots ( Psittacus erithacus) and one hyacinth macaw ( Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) were examined because of varying clinical signs ranging from general lethargy to seizure-like episodes and regurgitation. Radiography and fluoroscopy in the 3 birds demonstrated variable degrees of gastric abnormalities, suggesting the presence of foreign material or stricture-like defects. Upper gastrointestinal rigid endoscopy by ingluviotomy revealed foreign bodies that were removed endoscopically. Minor postoperative complications were pulmonary congestion or mild aspiration and cardiac arrhythmia, both of which resolved, and no serious deleterious effects were associated with endoscopy in the short or long term. Endoscopy is recommended for examination and removal of foreign bodies from the upper gastrointestinal tract because it is less invasive and traumatic than traditional surgical approaches.

Specialized stem cell niche enables repetitive renewal of alligator teeth.

Reptiles and fish have robust regenerative powers for tooth renewal. However, extant mammals can either renew their teeth one time (diphyodont dentition) or not at all (monophyodont dentition). Humans replace their milk teeth with permanent teeth and then lose their ability for tooth renewal. Here, we study tooth renewal in a crocodilian model, the American alligator, which has well-organized teeth similar to mammals but can still undergo life-long renewal. Each alligator tooth is a complex family unit composed of the functional tooth, successional tooth, and dental lamina. Using multiple mitotic labeling, we map putative stem cells to the distal enlarged bulge of the dental lamina that contains quiescent odontogenic progenitors that can be activated during physiological exfoliation or artificial extraction. Tooth cycle initiation correlates with ß-catenin activation and soluble frizzled-related protein 1 disappearance in the bulge. The dermal niche adjacent to the dermal lamina dynamically expresses neural cell adhesion molecule, tenascin-C, and other molecules. Furthermore, in development, asymmetric ß-catenin localization leads to the formation of a heterochronous and complex tooth family unit configuration. Understanding how these signaling molecules interact in tooth development in this model may help us to learn how to stimulate growth of adult teeth in mammals.

MANDIBULAR SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA IN A BOBCAT (LYNX RUFUS).

A 23-yr-old female spayed bobcat (Lynx rufus) presented with a 1-wk history of hypersalivation. On examination, the right mandible was markedly thickened, the right mandibular dental arcade was missing, and the oral mucosa over the right mandible was ulcerated and thickened. Skull radiographs and fine needle aspirate cytology were supportive of squamous cell carcinoma. The bobcat was euthanized as a result of its poor prognosis. Necropsy confirmed a diagnosis of oral squamous cell carcinoma of the mandible. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of oral squamous cell carcinoma in a bobcat.

FOCUSED ASSESSMENT WITH SONOGRAPHY AS AN AID FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF GASTROINTESTINAL PERFORATION IN A BOBCAT ( FELIS RUFUS ).

A 10-yr-old female spayed bobcat (Felis rufus) presented with a 3-day history of lethargy, anorexia, and two episodes of vomiting. An emergency field visit was scheduled to perform abdominal radiography and ultrasonography. The bobcat was assessed to be approximately 5-10% dehydrated, on the basis of decreased skin turgor and tacky mucous membranes. Free peritoneal gas, reduced abdominal serosal detail, and an abnormal-appearing right-sided intestinal segment were identified in the abdominal radiographs. However, the emergency field clinicians were not knowledgeable of these abnormalities, because the radiographs could not be processed in the field. During an initial complete abdominal ultrasound evaluation, a nondependent hyperechoic interface with reverberation artifact suggestive of intestinal or free gas and focal intestinal changes indicative of marked enteritis or peritonitis were identified. Free peritoneal fluid was not present on initial examination. In a focused abdominal sonography for trauma (FAST) scan, made after subcutaneous fluid administration, a small volume of anechoic free fluid was present in the peritoneal space. With ultrasound guidance, the fluid was aspirated and appeared grossly turbid. This fluid was subsequently confirmed as septic suppurative effusion, secondary to a foreign body-associated intestinal perforation. The use of a FAST scan is well described in human medicine, and to a limited degree in veterinary literature. This case represents a novel application of FAST scanning in an emergency field setting in a nontraumatized patient. This case report illustrates the utility of the FAST scan in yielding critical clinical information after fluid resuscitation in a zoological setting.

Use of a Nitinol Wire Stent for Management of Severe Tracheal Stenosis in an Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus roratus).

A 25-year-old, female eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) presented for dyspnea 3 weeks after anesthesia and surgery for egg yolk coelomitis. Radiography, computed tomography, and tracheoscopy revealed multiple tracheal strictures spanning a length of 2.6 cm in the mid to distal trachea. Histopathologic examination revealed mild fibrosis, inflammation, and hyperplasia consistent with acquired tracheal strictures. Tracheal resection was not considered possible because of the length of the affected trachea. The strictures were resected endoscopically, and repeated balloon dilation under fluoroscopic guidance over the course of 10 months resulted in immediate but unsustained improvement. Computed tomography was used to measure the stenotic area. A 4 × 36-mm, custom-made, nitinol wire stent was inserted into the trachea under fluoroscopic guidance. After stent placement, intermittent episodes of mild to moderate dyspnea continued, and these responded to nebulization with a combination of saline, acetylcysteine, and dexamethasone. Multiple attempts to wean the patient off nebulization therapy and to switch to a corticosteroid-free combination were unsuccessful. The parrot eventually developed complications, was euthanatized, and necropsy was performed. Histologically, the tracheal mucosa had widespread erosion to ulceration, with accumulation of intraluminal exudate and bacteria, severe degeneration of skeletal muscle and tracheal rings, prominent fibrosis, and mild to moderate, submucosal inflammation. Clinicopathologic findings in this case suggested tracheomalacia, which has not been previously described in birds. Custom-made tracheal stents can be used for severe tracheal stenosis in birds when tracheal resection and anastomosis is not possible. Complications of tracheal stent placement in birds may include tracheitis and tracheomalacia. To our knowledge, this is the first report of tracheal stent placement in an avian species.

Pharmacokinetics of Levetiracetam in Healthy Hispaniolan Amazon Parrots ( Amazona ventralis ) After Oral Administration of a Single Dose.

Long-term anticonvulsive treatments have been poorly described in birds, and few pharmacokinetic studies have been performed, with mixed results. Levetiracetam, a new anticonvulsive drug, has shown good efficacy for monotherapy or adjunctive treatment of seizures in both human and veterinary medicine. To determine pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots ( Amazona ventralis ), 20 healthy birds were randomly divided into 2 groups and administered either a 50 mg/kg (n = 10) or a 100 mg/kg (n = 10) oral dose of levetiracetam with no observable adverse effects. Blood samples were collected at baseline and at 12 time intervals (6 per group) for 16 hours. The concentration-time profiles resembled characteristic absorption, with maximum plasma concentrations of 61.0 µg/mL and 95.1 µg/mL at 60 minutes; terminal half-lives at 2.38 and 2.37 hours; volumes of distribution of 0.807 and 0.773 L/kg, with an area under the curve at 14 100 and 28 820 mg × min/L; and clearance rates of 3.65 and 3.60 mL/min per kg, respectively. Plasma concentrations were greater than 5.5 mg/L for up to 9.4 and 12 hours, suggesting an 8- and 12-hour oral dosing at 50 and 100 mg/kg, respectively, would be sufficient to maintain targeted values. Clinically, doses and frequencies may need escalation based on differences in species and individuals, and drug levels should be monitored.

Antemortem Diagnosis and Successful Treatment of Pulmonary Candidiasis in a Sun Conure (Aratinga solstitialis).

An adult male sun conure (Aratinga solstitialis) was evaluated because of lethargy, ruffled feathers, and decreased appetite. Physical examination revealed hypothermia, dehydration, dyspnea, and crop distention. Results of a complete blood cell count revealed a marked inflammatory leukogram, and cytologic examination of a crop swab sample identified gram-negative bacilli and occasional yeast organisms. Radiographs demonstrated an opaque, ill-defined, soft tissue structure in the caudal coelom just cranial to the renogonadal silhouette, loss of serosal detail, and splenomegaly. Endoscopic examination revealed a pale, granuloma-like structure within the caudal aspect of the left lung, splenomegaly, and an enlarged proventriculus. Intraoperative cytologic examination of a biopsy sample of the lesion demonstrated yeast organisms, and a subsequent culture of the biopsy sample revealed Candida albicans . The bird was treated intraoperatively with intralesional amphotericin B. Postoperative treatment consisted of meloxicam, trimethoprim sulfa, amphotericin B by nebulization, and systemic itraconazole and fluconazole. The bird made a complete recovery, was discontinued from all medications, and has remained asymptomatic for 6 months. Although rare, pulmonary candidiasis should be on the list of differential diagnoses for any respiratory infection in birds. Endoscopic biopsy, cytology, and fungal culture were valuable in making the diagnosis.

Postprandial effects following a semielemental critical-care diet lead to changes in uric acid, bile acids, and glucose in the central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps).

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prandial effects of a semielemental diet on plasma uric acid, bile acid, and glucose concentrations in the central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps). ANIMALS: 13 healthy adult male bearded dragons. METHODS: Following a 72-hour fasting period, blood was collected to measure preprandial uric acid, bile acid, and glucose concentrations. The animals were then gavage fed 1.2% body weight of an omnivore critical-care diet containing 20% protein, 9.5% fat, 2.5% fiber, and 2.39 kcal/mL. Blood was collected for repeat concentrations at 4 and 24 hours. RESULTS: Median (IQR) uric acid concentration (mg/dL) increased from 3.8 preprandial (2.8 to 4.3) to 4.7 4 hours postprandial (4 to 7; P = .0001). Median (IQR) bile acid concentration (mg/dL) increased from 1.8 preprandial (1 to 3.4) to 9.5 24 hours postprandial (5.6 to 10.4; P = .004). Median (IQR) glucose concentration (mg/dL) was 209 at time 0 (193 to 216), 287 at 4 hours (258 to 312), and 393 at 24 hours (361 to 464). Significant increases were seen between pre- and 4-hours-postprandial (P < .0001), pre- and 24-hours-postprandial (P < .0001), and 4-hours- and 24-hours-postprandial (P < .0001) glucose concentrations. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that postprandial status and diet composition should be considered during the interpretation of some biochemical analytes in the bearded dragon.

Retrospective assessment of general anesthesia-related challenges, morbidity, and death in snakes: 139 cases (2000-2022).

OBJECTIVE: To summarize the anesthetic events of snakes seen at a large university hospital, identify challenges with record keeping, and assess patient and anesthesia-related morbidity and death. SAMPLE: 139 anesthetic events were performed; only 106 cases had detailed anesthetic reports available for further analyses. PROCEDURES: Medical records of snakes that underwent general anesthesia between October 2000 and January 2022 were retrospectively reviewed. Only cases with complete anesthesia records were used to assess anesthetic parameters. Collected data included general patient details, diagnoses, procedures, premedication, induction, maintenance, monitoring, and recovery. RESULTS: A thorough review of the records identified issues or scenarios that resulted in poor record management as well as highlighted the most frequently used anesthetics in snakes. For premedication this was alfaxalone, butorphanol, and hydromorphone, whereas isoflurane, alfaxalone, or propofol were the most common with induction. Lastly, with maintenance, isoflurane was the most popular choice. Of the 139 cases performed, 127 animals recovered, 8 were euthanatized due to poor prognosis, and 4 failed to recover. All snakes that failed to recover had preexisting disease identified pre-, peri-, or postoperatively at necropsy. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: General anesthesia can be reliably and safely undertaken in snakes without severe preexisting disease. Efforts should be directed at identifying preexisting disease and maintaining and completing anesthesia records, and we recommend an auditing system to identify and correct issues as they arise.

Testosterone identifies hatchling sex for Mojave desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii).

The threatened Mojave desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) exhibits temperature-dependent sex determination, and individuals appear externally sexually monomorphic until sexual maturity. A non-surgical sex identification method that is suitable for a single in situ encounter with hatchlings is essential for minimizing handling of wild animals. We tested (1) whether plasma testosterone quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay differentiated males from females in 0-3 month old captive hatchlings, and (2) whether an injection of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) differentially elevates testosterone in male hatchlings to aid in identifying sex. We validated sex by ceolioscopic (laparoscopic) surgery. We then fit the testosterone concentrations to lognormal distributions and identified the concentration below which individuals are more likely female, and above which individuals are more likely male. Using a parametric bootstrapping procedure, we estimated a 0.01-0.04% misidentification rate for naïve testosterone samples, and a 1.26-1.39% misidentification rate for challenged (post-FSH injection) testosterone samples. Quantification of plasma testosterone concentration from small volume (0.1 mL) blood samples appears to be a viable, highly accurate method to identify sex of 0-3 month old hatchlings and could be a valuable tool for conservation measures and investigation of trends and variation in sex ratios for in situ wild nests.

Chronic mandibular osteomyelitis associated with a novel probable Kocuria sp in a sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps).

Dental disease in sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) is understudied, with only limited clinical and pathological data available. An approximately 7-year-old female sugar glider presented to its primary care veterinarian for a decline in food intake, rapid weight loss and a mass involving the rostral mandible. At necropsy, the mandibular mass effaced most of the rostral mandible and adjacent musculature. Histologically, the mandible was disrupted by nodular infiltrates of variably degenerate neutrophils and macrophages encased in granulomatous inflammation and fibrous connective tissue. Within the neutrophilic cell population were segments of fragmented, necrotic bone and cloud-like colonies of gram-positive cocci. Aerobic culture yielded a heavy, pure growth of a gram-positive coccus morphologically consistent with those identified in the lesions, which was identified as a presumptively novel Kocuria sp by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. This is the first description of Kocuria infection in association with clinically significant pathology in an animal. Although isolated as a pure growth, Kocuria sp cannot be confirmed as the sole cause of lesion formation due to the case chronicity and potential for unculturable, polymicrobial infections. This report adds to our understanding of the clinical and pathological aspects of dental disease in sugar gliders.

Magnetic resonance imaging diagnosis of intervertebral disc disease and myelomalacia in an American black bear (Ursus americanus).

A 23-yr-old black bear (Ursus americanus) was examined because of paralysis of unknown duration. The precise onset of clinical signs was unknown as a result of seasonal torpor. The bear was immobilized and transported to a university veterinary teaching hospital for further evaluation and treatment. Radiography revealed increased mineral opacity and ventral bridging across vertebral segments T8-11. Magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated dorsal and ventral compression of the spinal cord at T8-9. Given the bear's advanced age, the unknown duration of spinal cord compression, unknown presence of deep pain perception, and thus an unknown prognosis for surgical success, euthanasia was elected. Postmortem examination revealed severe spondylosis deformans from T7 to L3 and dorsal extradural extruded disc material in the area of T8-9. Histopathology demonstrated the dorsal horns of the spinal cord at T9 were replaced by foamy macrophages extending into the dorsal and lateral funiculi of the white matter compatible with focal, severe, chronic myelomalacia. This is the first report of intervertebral disc disease and myelomalacia diagnosed using MRI in a large carnivore.

Debilitation and mortality associated with besnoitiosis in four Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana).

Besnoitia spp. are coccidian parasites that infect a variety of wild and domestic mammals as well as some reptiles. Although infection with Besnoitia is common in Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), clinical signs or death due to Besnoitia is rare. This manuscript describes four Virginia opossums that had severe clinical disease and inflammation associated with besnoitiosis. Clinical signs included trembling, incoordination, circling, blindness, poor body condition, and sudden death. Gross lesions included parasitic cysts in eyes, skin, and visceral organs. Histologically, cysts were often degenerate and associated with mild to marked inflammation, and amyloidosis was noted in one animal. Polymerase chain reaction and sequencing confirmed Besnoitia darlingi in three of the four opossums.

Improved clinicopathologic assessments of acute liver damage due to trauma in Indian ring-necked parakeets (Psittacula krameri manillensis).

Increased activities of certain biochemical enzymes (alanine aminotransferase [ALT], aspartate aminotransferase [AST], lactate dehydrogenase [LDH], alkaline phosphatase [ALP]) have been associated with blunt liver injury in many species. To evaluate changes in plasma hepatic biochemical parameters in acute avian liver disease caused by trauma and to compare biochemical changes with histologic lesions in hepatic parenchyma, 30 healthy fasted Indian ring-necked parakeets (Psittacula krameri manillensis) were divided into 2 groups, and traumatic liver injury was caused by endoscopic liver biopsy (group 1) or by liver biopsy and crushing injury to the hepatic parenchyma with endoscopic forceps (group 2) in anesthetized birds. Blood samples were collected at baseline and at 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, and 120 hours in alternate groups to compare analyte values after injury with those at baseline. Results showed consistently decreased plasma ALP activity (excluding 1 time point) throughout the study, which was thought to be associated with isoflurane administration. Plasma glutamate dehydrogenase activity initially increased but rapidly declined thereafter and was attributed to acute focal hepatocellular injury. In both groups, increases in plasma AST, ALT, and LDH activities was most likely caused by muscle injury because creatine kinase activity was concurrently increased. Compared with baseline values, bile acid concentration and y-glutamyl transferase activity were not affected by liver biopsy or crush injury. Plasma sorbitol dehydrogenase activity was the most specific indicator of liver injury in both groups. Histologic changes correlated poorly with biochemical results, possibly because the small area of hepatic parenchyma that was damaged did not affect enzyme values substantially.

Coagulation testing in green iguanas (Iguana iguana) with development of prothrombin time assays using reptile and avian thromboplastin.

BACKGROUND: Captive reptiles often present with clinical signs suggestive of a clotting disorder or severe illness that can induce or exacerbate a coagulopathy. However, coagulopathies in reptiles are difficult to characterize due to lack of species-appropriate reagents to perform coagulation tests. The objective of this study was to develop screening tests to evaluate the extrinsic and common pathways of coagulation in green iguanas (Iguana iguana). KEY FINDINGS: Reptile and avian thromboplastin, extracted from reptile and avian brains, respectively, were used to initiate coagulation in prothrombin time (PT) assays and commercially available reagents were used to determine Russell's viper venom time, thrombin time, and fibrinogen using the Clauss method. Coagulation assays were performed on citrate-anticoagulated plasma from 18 healthy green iguanas. Results were summarized as median (minimum-maximum): PT (reptile thromboplastin), 34.8 seconds (27.1-42.1 s), PT (avian thromboplastin), 78.5 seconds (51.6-114.23 s), Russell's viper venom time, 56.15 seconds (18.4-79.7 s), thrombin time, 10 seconds (7.0-36.5 s), and fibrinogen, 258 mg/dl (89-563.0) (2.58 [0.89-5.63 g/L]). SIGNIFICANCE: Commercial reagents can be used to evaluate the common pathway and fibrinogen; however, avian- or reptile-sourced thromboplastin is preferred for a reliable coagulation trigger to perform the PT assay and evaluate the extrinsic pathway.

Endoscopic sexing in turtles and tortoises: 467 cases (2007-2017).

BACKGROUND: This multi-institutional retrospective study evaluated the feasibility and safety of endoscopic sex identification in 467 turtles and tortoises, representing 10 species. METHODS: Medical records of turtles and tortoises that underwent endoscopic sex identification at the University of Georgia, New England Aquarium and Turtle Conservancy were reviewed for presurgical management, anaesthesia, endoscopic equipment and surgical techniques, endoscopic results and complications. RESULTS: The majority of animals weighed less than 200 g, were fasted and anaesthetised using an injectable combination of ketamine, dexmedetomidine and morphine or hydromorphone, supplemented by local lidocaine at the prefemoral site. Anaesthetic reversal using atipamezole alone or in combination with naloxone was routine. For uncomplicated procedures, mean total anaesthesia, surgery and recovery times were 22, 4 and 18 minutes, respectively. All animals were placed in lateral recumbency for a prefemoral endoscopic approach to the coelom using a rigid telescope and sterile fluid infusion to visualise the gonads. Sex identification was definitive in 99.4% (n = 464) of the animals. Iatrogenic bladder perforation was the most common complication (n = 5), which necessitated extended anaesthesia and surgical time for repair. Only a single anaesthetic-related death was reported, which was associated with human error and drug overdose. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first large-scale study to retrospectively evaluate endoscopic sex identification in multiple chelonian species. Results suggest that endoscopic sexing is a safe, accurate and practical means for sex identification in turtles and tortoises, and represents a valuable tool in their reproductive management.

Cardiomyopathy and right-sided congestive heart failure in a red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis).

A 15-year-old female red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) was evaluated because of dyspnea, anorexia, and coelomic distension. Diagnostic imaging results confirmed severe coelomic effusion and revealed a markedly dilated right ventricle. The diagnosis was right-sided congestive heart failure. Results of measurements of vitamin E, selenium, lead, zinc, and cardiac troponin levels were normal or nondiagnostic. The hawk was treated with furosemide, antifungal and antimicrobial agents, and supplemental fluids and oxygen, but euthanasia was elected because of the poor prognosis and the practical difficulties associated with intensive case management. To our knowledge, this is the first described case of cardiomyopathy and congestive heart failure in a captive red-tailed hawk.