Author Correction: Activated ß-catenin in Foxp3+ regulatory T cells links inflammatory environments to autoimmunity.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Regulatory T cells in autoimmune disease.

In recent years, the understanding of regulatory T cell (Treg cell) biology has expanded considerably. Key observations have challenged the traditional definition of Treg cells and have provided insight into the underlying mechanisms responsible for the development of autoimmune diseases, with new therapeutic strategies that improve disease outcome. This Review summarizes the newer concepts of Treg cell instability, Treg cell plasticity and tissue-specific Treg cells, and their relationship to autoimmunity. Those three main concepts have changed the understanding of Treg cell biology: how they interact with other immune and non-immune cells; their functions in specific tissues; and the implications of this for the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases.

Activated ß-catenin in Foxp3+ regulatory T cells links inflammatory environments to autoimmunity.

Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Treg cells) are the central component of peripheral immune tolerance. Whereas a dysregulated Treg cytokine signature has been observed in autoimmune diseases, the regulatory mechanisms underlying pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine production are elusive. Here, we identify an imbalance between the cytokines IFN-γ and IL-10 as a shared Treg signature present in patients with multiple sclerosis and under high-salt conditions. RNA-sequencing analysis on human Treg subpopulations revealed ß-catenin as a key regulator of IFN-γ and IL-10 expression. The activated ß-catenin signature was enriched in human IFN-γ+ Treg cells, as confirmed in vivo with Treg-specific ß-catenin-stabilized mice exhibiting lethal autoimmunity with a dysfunctional Treg phenotype. Moreover, we identified prostaglandin E receptor 2 (PTGER2) as a regulator of IFN-γ and IL-10 production under a high-salt environment, with skewed activation of the ß-catenin-SGK1-Foxo axis. Our findings reveal a novel PTGER2-ß-catenin loop in Treg cells linking environmental high-salt conditions to autoimmunity.

TLR7 induces anergy in human CD4(+) T cells.

The recognition of microbial patterns by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) is critical for activation of the innate immune system. Although TLRs are expressed by human CD4(+) T cells, their function is not well understood. Here we found that engagement of TLR7 in CD4(+) T cells induced intracellular calcium flux with activation of an anergic gene-expression program dependent on the transcription factor NFATc2, as well as unresponsiveness of T cells. As chronic infection with RNA viruses such as human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) induces profound dysfunction of CD4(+) T cells, we investigated the role of TLR7-induced anergy in HIV-1 infection. Silencing of TLR7 markedly decreased the frequency of HIV-1-infected CD4(+) T cells and restored the responsiveness of those HIV-1(+) CD4(+) T cells. Our results elucidate a previously unknown function for microbial pattern-recognition receptors in the downregulation of immune responses.

HERV1-env Induces Unfolded Protein Response Activation in Autoimmune Liver Disease: A Potential Mechanism for Regulatory T Cell Dysfunction.

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are not terminally differentiated but can acquire effector properties. Here we report an increased expression of human endogenous retrovirus 1 (HERV1-env) proteins in Tregs of patients with de novo autoimmune hepatitis and autoimmune hepatitis, which induces endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. HERV1-env-triggered ER stress activates all three branches (IRE1, ATF6, and PERK) of the unfolded protein response (UPR). Our coimmunoprecipitation studies show an interaction between HERV1-env proteins and the ATF6 branch of the UPR. The activated form of ATF6α activates the expression of RORC and STAT3 by binding to promoter sequences and induces IL-17A production. Silencing of HERV1-env results in recovery of Treg suppressive function. These findings identify ER stress and UPR activation as key factors driving Treg plasticity (species: human).

Control of CD4+ T Cell Differentiation and Function by PI3K Isoforms.

The phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) pathway is a highly conserved intracellular signaling pathway involving numerous key effectors which, in response to diverse extracellular stimuli, modulate the phenotype and function of most mammalian cell types in a pleiotropic manner. PI3K signaling plays a critical role in the development, activation, and differentiation of lymphocytes. In particular, the PI3Kδ and PI3Kγ isoforms have been shown to carry out essential, non-redundant roles in T cells, and therefore, tight regulation of the PI3K pathway is important to maintain the balance between immune tolerance and inflammation. Recent and ongoing efforts to manipulate the biology of T helper cell subsets in the treatment of autoimmune conditions, inflammatory disorders, as well as cancer have shown promising results, and targeting the PI3K pathway may be beneficial in these contexts. However, more insight as to the precise function of individual PI3K isoforms in pathogenic and protective immune cell subsets is still required, and how exactly PI3K signaling is regulated and integrated with classical immune pathways. This chapter provides an overview of the role of PI3K isoforms in the differentiation and function of T helper cell subsets, within the broader context of targeting this pathway to potentially alleviate immunopathology.

Fingolimod modulates T cell phenotype and regulatory T cell plasticity in vivo.

Fingolimod is an approved therapeutic option for patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis that primarily functions by sequestering T cells in lymph nodes inhibiting their egress to the central nervous system. However, recent data suggests that Fingolimod may also directly affect the immune cell function. Here we examined the in vivo effects of Fingolimod in modulating the phenotype and function of T cell and Foxp3 regulatory T cell populations in patients with multiple sclerosis under Fingolimod treatment. Besides decreasing the cell numbers in peripheral blood and sera levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, Fingolimod inhibited the expression of Th1 and Th17 cytokines on CD4+ T cells and increased the expression of exhaustion markers. Furthermore, treatment increased the frequency of regulatory T cells in blood and inhibited the Th1-like phenotype that is characteristic of patients with multiple sclerosis, augmenting the expression of markers associated with increased suppressive function. Overall, our data suggest that Fingolimod performs other important immunomodulatory functions besides altering T cell migratory capacities, with consequences for other autoimmune pathologies characterized by excessive Th1/Th17 responses and Th1-like regulatory T cell effector phenotypes.

AKT isoforms modulate Th1-like Treg generation and function in human autoimmune disease.

Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) exhibit plasticity, which dictates their function. Secretion of the inflammatory cytokine IFNγ, together with the acquisition of a T helper 1 (Th1)-like effector phenotype as observed in cancer, infection, and autoimmune diseases, is associated with loss of Treg suppressor function through an unknown mechanism. Here, we describe the signaling events driving the generation of human Th1-Tregs. Using a genome-wide gene expression approach and pathway analysis, we identify the PI3K/AKT/Foxo1/3 signaling cascade as the major pathway involved in IFNγ secretion by human Tregs. Furthermore, we describe the opposing roles of AKT isoforms in Th1-Treg generation ex vivo Finally, we employ multiple sclerosis as an in vivo model with increased but functionally defective Th1-Tregs. We show that the PI3K/AKT/Foxo1/3 pathway is activated in ex vivo-isolated Tregs from untreated relapsing-remitting MS patients and that blockade of the pathway inhibits IFNγ secretion and restores the immune suppressive function of Tregs. These data define a fundamental pathway regulating the function of human Tregs and suggest a novel treatment paradigm for autoimmune diseases.

Molecular mechanisms underlying Th1-like Treg generation and function.

Since their 're-discovery' more than two decades ago, FOXP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) have been an important subject of investigation in the biomedical field and our understanding of the mechanisms that drive their phenotype and function in health and disease has advanced tremendously. During the past few years it has become clear that Tregs are not a terminally differentiated population but show some degree of plasticity, and can, under specific environmental conditions, acquire the phenotype of effector T cells. In particular, recent works have highlighted the acquisition of a Th1-like phenotype by Tregs in several pathological environments. In this review we give an update on the concept of Treg plasticity and the advances in defining the molecular mechanisms that underlie the generation of Th1-like Tregs during an immune response and in different disease settings.

Nonapoptotic and extracellular activity of granzyme B mediates resistance to regulatory T cell (Treg) suppression by HLA-DR-CD25hiCD127lo Tregs in multiple sclerosis and in response to IL-6.

In autoimmune patients, regulatory T cells (Tregs) are increasingly found to be unable to suppress patient-derived T cells, an outcome referred to as Treg resistance. In this study, we show that CD4 T cells from patients with multiple sclerosis resist suppression by patient-derived or healthy donor-derived ex vivo Tregs. Importantly, we report that granzyme B (GzmB) contributes to this Treg resistance via a novel, apoptosis-independent mechanism. We show that memory CD4(+)CD127(lo)FOXP3(+) Treg subsets do not express GzmB, whereas activated, nonregulatory CD4 T cells isolated from patients with multiple sclerosis express higher levels of GzmB than do cells from healthy donors. In contrast to the intracellular GzmB that mediates apoptosis, GzmB can be found in extracellular fluids where it is hypothesized to regulate other cellular processes. In this study, we show that providing extracellular GzmB strongly inhibits Treg suppression, without altering Treg viability. However, when GzmB and GzmB-specific inhibitor are both provided to the cocultures, Treg suppression occurs. Thus, these data suggest that a novel activity of extracellular GzmB is to regulate Treg suppression. Additionally, we find that the suppression-abrogating cytokine IL-6 augments GzmB expression by human CD4 T cells, and it inhibits Treg suppression via this nonapoptotic GzmB-mediated mechanism. Lastly, in examining the mechanism whereby GzmB inhibits Treg function, we show that extracellular GzmB reduces Treg expression of CD39 and programmed death ligand 1. Collectively, these data indicate that extracellular GzmB plays an unexpected, nonapoptotic role in regulating Treg suppression and suggest that inactivation of specifically the extracellular activity of GzmB may be an efficacious therapeutic in autoimmunity.

Enhanced suppressor function of TIM-3+ FoxP3+ regulatory T cells.

T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3 (TIM-3) is an Ig-superfamily member expressed on IFN-γ-secreting Th1 and Tc1 cells and was identified as a negative regulator of immune tolerance. TIM-3 is expressed by a subset of activated CD4(+) T cells, and anti-CD3/anti-CD28 stimulation increases both the level of expression and the number of TIM-3(+) T cells. In mice, TIM-3 is constitutively expressed on natural regulatory T (Treg) cells and has been identified as a regulatory molecule of alloimmunity through its ability to modulate CD4(+) T-cell differentiation. Here, we examined TIM-3 expression on human Treg cells to determine its role in T-cell suppression. In contrast to mice, TIM-3 is not expressed on Treg cells ex vivo but is upregulated after activation. While TIM-3(+) Treg cells with increased gene expression of LAG3, CTLA4, and FOXP3 are highly efficient suppressors of effector T (Teff) cells, TIM-3(-) Treg cells poorly suppressed Th17 cells as compared with their suppression of Th1 cells; this decreased suppression ability was associated with decreased STAT-3 expression and phosphorylation and reduced gene expression of IL10, EBI3, GZMB, PRF1, IL1Rα, and CCR6. Thus, our results suggest that TIM-3 expression on Treg cells identifies a population highly effective in inhibiting pathogenic Th1- and Th17-cell responses.

The TIGIT/CD226 axis regulates human T cell function.

T cell Ig and ITIM domain (TIGIT) is a newly identified receptor expressed on T cells that binds to CD155 on the dendritic cell surface, driving them to a more tolerogenic phenotype. Given that TIGIT contains an ITIM motif in its intracellular domain and considering the potential importance of the TIGIT/CD226 pathway in human autoimmune disease, we investigated the specific role of TIGIT in human CD4(+) T cells. Using an agonistic anti-TIGIT mAb, we demonstrate a direct inhibitory effect on T cell proliferation with a decrease in expression of T-bet, GATA3, IFN regulatory factor 4, and retinoic acid-related orphan receptor c with inhibition of cytokine production, predominantly IFN-γ. Knockdown of TIGIT expression by short hairpin RNA resulted in an increase of both T-bet and IFN-γ mRNA and protein expression with concomitant decrease in IL-10 expression. Increases in IFN-γ with TIGIT knockdown could be overcome by blocking CD226 signaling, indicating that TIGIT exerts immunosuppressive effects by competing with CD226 for the same CD155 ligand. These data demonstrate that TIGIT can inhibit T cell functions by competing with CD226 and can also directly inhibit T cells in a T cell-intrinsic manner. Our results provide evidence for a novel role of this alternative costimulatory pathway in regulating human T cell responses associated with autoimmune disease.

Cell Culture Evaluation Hints Widely Available HIV Drugs Are Primed for Success if Repurposed for HTLV-1 Prevention.

With an estimated 10 million people infected, the deltaretrovirus human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is the second most prevalent pathogenic retrovirus in humans after HIV-1. Like HIV-1, HTLV-1 overwhelmingly persists in a host via a reservoir of latently infected CD4+ T cells. Although most patients are asymptomatic, HTLV-1-associated pathologies are often debilitating and include adult T-cell leukaemia/lymphoma (ATLL), which presents in mature adulthood and is associated with poor prognosis with short overall survival despite treatment. Curiously, the strongest indicator for the development of ATLL is the acquisition of HTLV-1 through breastfeeding. There are no therapeutic or preventative regimens for HTLV-1. However, antiretrovirals (ARVs), which target the essential retrovirus enzymes, have been developed for and transformed HIV therapy. As the architectures of retroviral enzyme active sites are highly conserved, some HIV-specific compounds are active against HTLV-1. Here, we expand on our work, which showed that integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) and some nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) block HTLV-1 transmission in cell culture. Specifically, we find that dolutegravir, the INSTI currently recommended as the basis of all new combination antiretroviral therapy prescriptions, and the latest prodrug formula of the NRTI tenofovir, tenofovir alafenamide, also potently inhibit HTLV-1 infection. Our results, if replicated in a clinical setting, could see transmission rates of HTLV-1 and future caseloads of HTLV-1-associated pathologies like ATLL dramatically cut via the simple repurposing of already widely available HIV pills in HTLV-1 endemic areas. Considering our findings with the old medical saying "it is better to prevent than cure", we highly recommend the inclusion of INSTIs and tenofovir prodrugs in upcoming HTLV-1 clinical trials as potential prophylactics.

HTLV-1 induces an inflammatory CD4+CD8+ T cell population in HTLV-1-associated myelopathy.

Human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a retrovirus with preferential CD4+ T cell tropism that causes a range of conditions spanning from asymptomatic infection to adult T cell leukemia and HTLV-1-associated myelopathy (HAM), an inflammatory disease of the CNS. The mechanisms by which HTLV-1 induces HAM are poorly understood. By directly examining the ex vivo phenotype and function of T cells from asymptomatic carriers and patients with HAM, we show that patients with HAM have a higher frequency of CD4+CD8+ double-positive (DP) T cells, which are infected with HTLV-1 at higher rates than CD4+ T cells. Displaying both helper and cytotoxic phenotypes, these DP T cells are highly proinflammatory and contain high frequencies of HTLV-1-specific cells. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that DP T cells arise by direct HTLV-1 infection of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. High levels of CD49d and CXCR3 expression suggest that DP T cells possess the ability to migrate to the CNS, and when cocultured with astrocytes, DP T cells induce proinflammatory astrocytes that express high levels of CXCL10, IFN-γ, and IL-6. These results demonstrate the potential of DP T cells to directly contribute to CNS pathology.

CD2 costimulation reveals defective activity by human CD4+CD25(hi) regulatory cells in patients with multiple sclerosis.

Studying the activity of homogeneous regulatory T cell (Treg) populations will advance our understanding of their mechanisms of action and their role in human disease. Although isolating human Tregs exhibiting low expression of CD127 markedly increases purity, the resulting Treg populations are still heterogeneous. To examine the complexity of the Tregs defined by the CD127 phenotype in comparison with the previously described CD4(+)CD25(hi) subpopulations, we subdivided the CD25(hi) population of memory Tregs into subsets based on expression of CD127 and HLA-DR. These subsets exhibited differences in suppressive capacity, ability to secrete IL-10 and IL-17, Foxp3 gene methylation, cellular senescence, and frequency in neonatal and adult blood. The mature, short telomere, effector CD127(lo)HLA-DR(+) cells most strongly suppressed effector T cells within 48 h, whereas the less mature CD127(lo)HLA-DR(-) cells required 96 h to reach full suppressive capacity. In contrast, whereas the CD127(+)HLA-DR(-) cells also suppressed proliferation of effector cells, they could alternate between suppression or secretion of IL-17 depending upon the stimulation signals. When isolated from patients with multiple sclerosis, both the nonmature and the effector subsets of memory CD127(lo) Tregs exhibited kinetically distinct defects in suppression that were evident with CD2 costimulation. These data demonstrate that natural and not induced Tregs are less suppressive in patients with multiple sclerosis.

Up-regulation of FOXP3 and induction of suppressive function in CD4+ Jurkat T-cells expressing hepatitis C virus core protein.

HCV (hepatitis C virus) infection is a serious health care problem that affects more than 170 million people worldwide. Viral clearance depends on the development of a successful cellular immune response against the virus. Interestingly, such a response is altered in chronically infected patients, leading to chronic hepatitis that can result in liver fibrosis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Among the mechanisms that have been described as being responsible for the immune suppression caused by the virus, Treg-cells (regulatory T-cells) are emerging as an essential component. In the present work we aim to study the effect of HCV-core protein in the development of T-cells with regulatory-like function. Using a third-generation lentiviral system to express HCV-core in CD4+ Jurkat T-cells, we describe that HCV-core-expressing Jurkat cells show an up-regulation of FOXP3 (forkhead box P3) and CTLA-4 (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4). Moreover, we show that HCV-core-transduced Jurkat cells are able to suppress CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses to anti-CD3 plus anti-CD28 stimulation.

Fatty Acid Metabolism and T Cells in Multiple Sclerosis.

Cellular metabolic remodeling is intrinsically linked to the development, activation, differentiation, function, and survival of T cells. T cells transition from a catabolic, naïve state to an anabolic effector state upon T cell activation. Subsequently, specialization of T cells into T helper (Th) subsets, including regulatory T cells (Treg), requires fine-tuning of metabolic programs that better support and optimize T cell functions for that particular environment. Increasingly, studies have shown that changes in nutrient availability at both the cellular and organismal level during disease states can alter T cell function, highlighting the importance of better characterizing metabolic-immune axes in both physiological and disease settings. In support of these data, a growing body of evidence is emerging that shows specific lipid species are capable of altering the inflammatory functional phenotypes of T cells. In this review we summarize the metabolic programs shown to support naïve and effector T cells, and those driving Th subsets. We then discuss changes to lipid profiles in patients with multiple sclerosis, and focus on how the presence of specific lipid species can alter cellular metabolism and function of T cells.