Dolutegravir in antiretroviral-experienced patients with raltegravir- and/or elvitegravir-resistant HIV-1: 24-week results of the phase III VIKING-3 study.

BACKGROUND: The pilot phase IIb VIKING study suggested that dolutegravir (DTG), a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) integrase inhibitor (INI), would be efficacious in INI-resistant patients at the 50 mg twice daily (BID) dose. METHODS: VIKING-3 is a single-arm, open-label phase III study in which therapy-experienced adults with INI-resistant virus received DTG 50 mg BID while continuing their failing regimen (without raltegravir or elvitegravir) through day 7, after which the regimen was optimized with ≥1 fully active drug and DTG continued. The primary efficacy endpoints were the mean change from baseline in plasma HIV-1 RNA at day 8 and the proportion of subjects with HIV-1 RNA <50 c/mL at week 24. RESULTS: Mean change in HIV-1 RNA at day 8 was -1.43 log10 c/mL, and 69% of subjects achieved <50 c/mL at week 24. Multivariate analyses demonstrated a strong association between baseline DTG susceptibility and response. Response was most reduced in subjects with Q148 + ≥2 resistance-associated mutations. DTG 50 mg BID had a low (3%) discontinuation rate due to adverse events, similar to INI-naive subjects receiving DTG 50 mg once daily. CONCLUSIONS: DTG 50 mg BID-based therapy was effective in this highly treatment-experienced population with INI-resistant virus. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: www.clinicaltrials.gov (NCT01328041) and http://www.gsk-clinicalstudywww.gsk-clinicalstudyregister.com (112574).

Boosted protease inhibitor monotherapy in HIV-infected adults: outputs from a pan-European expert panel meeting.

While the introduction of combination highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) regimens represents an important advance in the management of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients, tolerability can be an issue and the use of several different agents may produce problems. The switch of combination HAART to ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor (PI) monotherapy may offer the opportunity to maintain antiviral efficacy while reducing treatment complexity and the risks of toxicity. Current European AIDS Clinical Society (EACS) guidelines recognise ritonavir-boosted PI monotherapy with twice-daily lopinavir/ritonavir or once-daily darunavir/ritonavir as a possible option in patients who have intolerance to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, or for treatment simplification. Clinical trials data for PI boosted monotherapy are encouraging, showing substantial efficacy in the majority of patients; however, further data are required before this approach can be recommended as a routine treatment. Available data indicate that the most suitable candidates for the use of boosted PI monotherapy are long-term virologically suppressed patients who have demonstrated good adherence to antiretroviral therapy, who do not have chronic hepatitis B, have no history of treatment failure on PIs and are able to tolerate low-dose ritonavir.

Cell-associated viral burden provides evidence of ongoing viral replication in aviremic HIV-2-infected patients.

Viremia is significantly lower in HIV-2 than in HIV-1 infection, irrespective of disease stage. Nevertheless, the comparable proviral DNA burdens observed for these two infections indicate similar numbers of infected cells. Here we investigated this apparent paradox by assessing cell-associated viral replication. We found that untreated HIV-1-positive (HIV-1(+)) and HIV-2(+) individuals, matched for CD4 T cell depletion, exhibited similar gag mRNA levels, indicating that significant viral transcription is occurring in untreated HIV-2(+) patients, despite the reduced viremia (undetectable to 2.6 × 10(4) RNA copies/ml). However, tat mRNA transcripts were observed at significantly lower levels in HIV-2(+) patients, suggesting that the rate of de novo infection is decreased in these patients. Our data also reveal a direct relationship of gag and tat transcripts with CD4 and CD8 T cell activation, respectively. Antiretroviral therapy (ART)-treated HIV-2(+) patients showed persistent viral replication, irrespective of plasma viremia, possibly contributing to the emergence of drug resistance mutations, persistent hyperimmune activation, and poor CD4 T cell recovery that we observed with these individuals. In conclusion, we provide here evidence of significant ongoing viral replication in HIV-2(+) patients, further emphasizing the dichotomy between amount of plasma virus and cell-associated viral burden and stressing the need for antiretroviral trials and the definition of therapeutic guidelines for HIV-2 infection.

The role of the humoral immune response in the molecular evolution of the envelope C2, V3 and C3 regions in chronically HIV-2 infected patients.

BACKGROUND: This study was designed to investigate, for the first time, the short-term molecular evolution of the HIV-2 C2, V3 and C3 envelope regions and its association with the immune response. Clonal sequences of the env C2V3C3 region were obtained from a cohort of eighteen HIV-2 chronically infected patients followed prospectively during 2-4 years. Genetic diversity, divergence, positive selection and glycosylation in the C2V3C3 region were analysed as a function of the number of CD4+ T cells and the anti-C2V3C3 IgG and IgA antibody reactivity RESULTS: The mean intra-host nucleotide diversity was 2.1% (SD, 1.1%), increasing along the course of infection in most patients. Diversity at the amino acid level was significantly lower for the V3 region and higher for the C2 region. The average divergence rate was 0.014 substitutions/site/year, which is similar to that reported in chronic HIV-1 infection. The number and position of positively selected sites was highly variable, except for codons 267 and 270 in C2 that were under strong and persistent positive selection in most patients. N-glycosylation sites located in C2 and V3 were conserved in all patients along the course of infection. Intra-host variation of C2V3C3-specific IgG response over time was inversely associated with the variation in nucleotide and amino acid diversity of the C2V3C3 region. Variation of the C2V3C3-specific IgA response was inversely associated with variation in the number of N-glycosylation sites. CONCLUSION: The evolutionary dynamics of HIV-2 envelope during chronic aviremic infection is similar to HIV-1 implying that the virus should be actively replicating in cellular compartments. Convergent evolution of N-glycosylation in C2 and V3, and the limited diversification of V3, indicates that there are important functional constraints to the potential diversity of the HIV-2 envelope. C2V3C3-specific IgG antibodies are effective at reducing viral population size limiting the number of virus escape mutants. The C3 region seems to be a target for IgA antibodies and increasing N-linked glycosylation may prevent HIV-2 envelope recognition by these antibodies. Our results provide new insights into the biology of HIV-2 and its relation with the human host and may have important implications for vaccine design.

Simplification to single-tablet regimen of elvitegravir, cobicistat, emtricitabine, tenofovir DF from multi-tablet ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor plus coformulated emtricitabine and tenofovir DF regimens: week 96 results of STRATEGY-PI.

BACKGROUND: Antiretroviral therapy (ART) simplification to a single-tablet regimen can benefit HIV-1-infected, virologically suppressed, individuals on ART composed of multiple pills. OBJECTIVE: We assessed long-term efficacy and safety of switching to co-formulated elvitegravir, cobicistat, emtricitabine, and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (E/C/F/TDF) from multi-tablet ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor (PI + RTV) plus F/TDF (TVD) regimens. METHODS: STRATEGY-PI was a 96-week, phase 3b, randomized (2:1), open-label, non-inferiority study examining the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of switching to E/C/F/TDF from PI + RTV + TVD regimens in virologically suppressed individuals (HIV-1 RNA <50 copies/mL). Participants were randomized to switch to E/C/F/TDF (switch group) or to continue their PI + RTV + TVD regimens (no-switch group). Eligibility criteria included no resistance to F/TDF or history of virologic failure, and estimated creatinine clearance ≥70 mL/min. RESULTS: At week 96, 87% (252/290) of switch and 70% (97/139) of no-switch participants maintained HIV-1 RNA <50 copies/mL (difference: 17%, 95% CI 8.7-26.0%, p < 0.001). Superiority of the switch to E/C/F/TDF vs. no-switch was due to a smaller proportion of both virologic failures (switch, 1% [3/290]; no-switch, 6% [8/139]) and discontinuations for non-virologic reasons (switch, 11% [31/290]; no-switch, 24% [33/139]). No treatment-emergent resistance was observed in switch subjects with virologic failure. Discontinuation rates from adverse events were 3% in both groups (9/293, switch; 4/140, no-switch). Switching from PI + RTV + TVD to E/C/F/TDF was associated with significant improvements in patient-reported outcomes related to gastrointestinal symptoms (nausea and bloating). CONCLUSION: E/C/F/TDF is a safe, effective long-term alternative to multi-tablet PI + RTV + TVD-based regimens in virologically suppressed, HIV-1-infected adults, and improves patient-reported gastrointestinal symptoms.

Telaprevir-based therapy for treatment of HIV-1 and hepatitis C virus co-infected patients: An early access programme.

OBJECTIVES: HPC3005 is a multicentre, open-label, telaprevir trial in HCV/HIV coinfected patients with severe fibrosis or compensated cirrhosis. METHODS: Patients were treated with telaprevir 750 mg every 8 h (1125 mg if on efavirenz) plus pegylated interferon-alpha (PEG-IFN, 180 µg once-weekly) and ribavirin (RBV, 800 mg/day) for 12 weeks, followed by 36 weeks of PEG-IFN/RBV. RESULTS: Mean age was 44 years, 97/118 patients were male and all were Caucasian, 68 had severe fibrosis and 50 had cirrhosis. Seventy-eight had HCV RNA levels ≥800 000 IU/mL, 72 had HCV genotype 1a, baseline HIV RNA was <50 copies/mL in 112 patients. Overall, 114/118 patients continued antiretroviral treatment, 4 were untreated. Seventy-five patients received tenofovir and 74 emtricitabine; in addition 53 received atazanavir/ritonavir, 43 raltegravir, and 24 efavirenz. By intention-to-treat, 78 (66%) patients achieved SVR24. Nineteen discontinued telaprevir, 8 for virological endpoint, 5 for adverse events (2 anaemia, 2 rash, 1 asthenia), 5 for non-compliance and 1 withdrew consent. The most common adverse events were anaemia (36 patients), thrombocytopaenia (33), rash (26), bilirubin increase (17), and neutropenia (16). CONCLUSIONS: In this early access programme in coinfected patients with severe fibrosis or cirrhosis, 66% of patients achieved SVR. The most common adverse events were haematological. CLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER: NCT01500616.

Change in vitamin D levels and risk of severe vitamin D deficiency over 48 weeks among HIV-1-infected, treatment-naive adults receiving rilpivirine or efavirenz in a Phase III trial (ECHO).

BACKGROUND: This analysis assessed changes in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D; the precursor form of active vitamin D) in antiretroviral-naive adults receiving rilpivirine or efavirenz over 48 weeks in a randomized, double-blind, Phase III trial (ECHO). METHODS: ECHO included 690 patients randomized 1:1 to receive rilpivirine 25 mg once daily (n=346) or efavirenz 600 mg once daily (n=344), plus tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine. 25(OH)D was measured in stored serum samples collected at baseline, and weeks 24 and 48. Proportions of patients with optimal/sufficient (≥30 ng/ml), insufficient (21-29 ng/ml), deficient (10-20 ng/ml) and severely deficient (<10 ng/ml) 25(OH)D levels were determined. Data are presented for patients with paired baseline and week 48 25(OH)D data (rilpivirine, n=292; efavirenz, n=290). RESULTS: After 48 weeks, mean 25(OH)D levels remained largely unchanged from baseline with rilpivirine (-0.2 ng/ml; P=0.57 versus no change), but were significantly reduced with efavirenz (-2.5 ng/ml; P<0.0001 versus no change). When adjusting for season of randomization and the combined variable of race (Black/African American, White/Caucasian, Asian, other race) and ethnicity (Hispanic or Latino and not Hispanic or not Latino), the conclusion about the treatment difference between the rilpivirine and efavirenz treatment groups remained valid. At baseline the proportion of patients with severe 25(OH)D deficiency was similar in both groups (5%) but was significantly lower with rilpivirine than efavirenz at week 48 (5% versus 9%, respectively; P=0.032). Furthermore, of the patients with 25(OH)D insufficiency/deficiency at baseline, the proportion who developed severe 25(OH)D deficiency at week 48 was significantly lower with rilpivirine than efavirenz (2% versus 8%, respectively; P=0.0079). CONCLUSIONS: Rilpivirine had little effect on 25(OH)D, whereas efavirenz resulted in a significant reduction in 25(OH)D levels and an increase in the risk of severe 25(OH)D deficiency.

Thrombocytopenia is associated with an increased risk of cancer during treated HIV disease.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between platelet counts and risk of AIDS and non-AIDS-defining events. DESIGN: Prospective cohort. METHODS: EuroSIDA patients with at least one platelet count were followed from baseline (first platelet ≥ 1 January 2005) until last visit or death. Multivariate Poisson regression was used to assess the relationship between current platelet counts and the incidence of non-AIDS-defining (pancreatitis, end-stage liver/renal disease, cancer, cardiovascular disease) and AIDS-defining events. RESULTS: There were 62 898 person-years of follow-up (PYFU) among 12 279 patients, including 1168 non-AIDS-defining events [crude incidence 18.6/1000 PYFU, 95% confidence interval (CI) 17.5-19.6] and 735 AIDS-defining events (crude incidence 11.7/1000 PYFU, 95% CI 10.8-12.5). Patients with thrombocytopenia (platelet count ≤100 × 10/l) had a slightly increased incidence of AIDS-defining events [adjusted incidence rate ratio (aIRR) 1.42, 95% CI 1.07-1.86], when compared to those with platelet counts 101-200 × 10/l, whereas the incidence of non-AIDS-defining events was more than two-fold higher (aIRR 2.66, 95% CI 2.17-3.26). Among non-AIDS-defining events, the adjusted incidence of cancer (aIRR 2.20, 95% CI 1.61-3.01), but not cardiovascular disease (aIRR 0.66, 95% CI 0.32-1.34), was significantly higher in patients with thrombocytopenia. The association between thrombocytopenia and cancer remained unaltered in sensitivity analyses requiring repeated platelet counts to confirm thrombocytopenia and lagging platelets by 1 year prior to clinical events. CONCLUSION: Patients with thrombocytopenia had increased incidence of AIDS-defining and non-AIDS-defining events, but the association with the latter, in particular cancer, was stronger. Future studies should investigate whether the pathophysiological processes underlying thrombocytopenia are associated with the development of cancer during treated HIV disease.

Direct treatment costs of HIV/AIDS in Portugal.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the direct medical costs of HIV/AIDS in Portugal from the perspective of the National Health Service. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of medical records was conducted for 150 patients from five specialized centers in Portugal in 2008. Data on utilization of medical resources during 12 months and patients' characteristics were collected. A unit cost was applied to each care component using official sources and accounting data from National Health Service hospitals. RESULTS: The average cost of treatment was 14,277 €/patient/year. The main cost-driver was antiretroviral treatment (€ 9,598), followed by hospitalization costs (€ 1,323). Treatment costs increased with the severity of disease from € 11,901 (> 500 CD4 cells/µl) to € 23,351 (CD4 count ≤ 50 cells/ µl). Cost progression was mainly due to the increase in hospitalization costs, while antiretroviral treatment costs remained stable over disease stages. CONCLUSIONS: The high burden related to antiretroviral treatment is counterbalanced by relatively low hospitalization costs, which, however, increase with severity of disease. The relatively modest progression of total costs highlights that alternative public health strategies that do not affect transmission of disease may only have a limited impact on expenditure, since treatment costs are largely dominated by constant antiretroviral treatment costs.

Resistance to antibody neutralization in HIV-2 infection occurs in late stage disease and is associated with X4 tropism.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize the nature and dynamics of the neutralizing antibody (NAb) response and escape in chronically HIV-2 infected patients. METHODS: Twenty-eight chronically infected adults were studied over a period of 1-4 years. The neutralizing activity of plasma immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies against autologous and heterologous primary isolates was analyzed using a standard assay in TZM-bl cells. Coreceptor usage was determined in ghost cells. The sequence and predicted three-dimensional structure of the C2V3C3 Env region were determined for all isolates. RESULTS: Only 50% of the patients consistently produced IgG NAbs to autologous and contemporaneous virus isolates. In contrast, 96% of the patients produced IgG antibodies that neutralized at least two isolates of a panel of six heterologous R5 isolates. Breadth and potency of the neutralizing antibodies were positively associated with the number of CD4(+) T cells and with the titer and avidity of C2V3C3-specific binding IgG antibodies. X4 isolates were obtained only from late stage disease patients and were fully resistant to neutralization. The V3 loop of X4 viruses was longer, had a higher net charge, and differed markedly in secondary structure compared to R5 viruses. CONCLUSION: Most HIV-2 patients infected with R5 isolates produce C2V3C3-specific neutralizing antibodies whose potency and breadth decreases as the disease progresses. Resistance to antibody neutralization occurs in late stage disease and is usually associated with X4 viral tropism and major changes in V3 sequence and conformation. Our studies support a model of HIV-2 pathogenesis in which the neutralizing antibodies play a central role and have clear implications for the vaccine field.

Baseline susceptibility of primary HIV-2 to entry inhibitors.

BACKGROUND: The baseline susceptibility of primary HIV-2 to maraviroc (MVC) and other entry inhibitors is currently unknown. METHODS: The susceptibility of 19 HIV-2 isolates obtained from asymptomatic and AIDS patients and seven HIV-1 clinical isolates to the fusion inhibitors enfuvirtide (ENF) and T-1249, and to the coreceptor antagonists AMD3100, TAK-779 and MVC, was measured using a TZM-bl cell-based assay. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC(50)), 90% inhibitory concentration (IC(90)) and dose-response curve slopes were determined for each drug. RESULTS: ENF and T-1249 were significantly less active on HIV-2 than on HIV-1 (211- and 2-fold, respectively). AMD3100 and TAK-779 inhibited HIV-2 and HIV-1 CXCR4 tropic (X4) and CCR5 tropic (R5) variants with similar IC(50) and IC(90) values. MVC, however, inhibited the replication of R5 HIV-2 variants with significantly higher IC(90) values (42.7 versus 9.7 nM; P<0.0001) and lower slope values (0.7 versus 1.3; P<0.0001) than HIV-1. HIV-2 R5 variants derived from AIDS patients were significantly less sensitive to MVC than variants from asymptomatic patients, this being inversely correlated with the absolute number of CD4(+) T-cells. CONCLUSIONS: T-1249 is a potent inhibitor of HIV-2 replication indicating that new fusion inhibitors might be useful to treat HIV-2 infection. Coreceptor antagonists TAK-779 and AMD3100 are also potent inhibitors of HIV-2 replication. The reduced sensitivity of R5 variants to MVC, especially in severely immunodeficient patients, indicates that the treatment of HIV-2-infected patients with MVC might require higher dosages than those used in HIV-1 patients, and should be adjusted to the disease stage.

Recent advances in antiretroviral treatment and prevention in HIV-infected patients.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To discuss new antiretroviral agents (ARVs) and alternative ARV treatment strategies that are currently being evaluated, and to provide an overview of the most recent advances in HIV vaccine development. RECENT FINDINGS: There is a continuous need for improvements in ARV therapy (ART) and several new ARVs are currently undergoing clinical investigation, including the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor rilpivirine, the integrase inhibitor elvitegravir, the chemokine receptor 5 co-receptor antagonist vicriviroc and the maturation inhibitor bevirimat. Strategies to optimize ART, such as treatment interruption, induction-maintenance and class-sparing regimens, are also being evaluated and have had varying success to date. However, vaccination still remains the optimal solution, and one second-generation preventative HIV vaccine has produced encouraging results in a recent phase III trial. SUMMARY: Global prevention and treatment with ARVs that are effective, well tolerated and have high barriers to the development of HIV resistance are the main strategies to fight HIV/AIDS while we await the development of an effective vaccine.

Envelope-specific antibody response in HIV-2 infection: C2V3C3-specific IgG response is associated with disease progression.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the unspecific and envelope-specific IgA and IgG responses in acute and chronic HIV-2 infection. METHODS: Twenty-eight chronically infected adults and two children with perinatal infection were studied. Total plasma concentrations of IgA and IgG were determined by nephelometry. IgA and IgG reactivity against the immunodominant region in gp36 and the C2V3C3 region in gp125 was tested with the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-HIV-2 assay. Clonal sequences of the C2V3C3 env region were obtained for most patients. RESULTS: Total plasma IgG concentration, but not IgA, was significantly higher than normal in HIV-2 patients and correlated inversely with CD4 T-cell counts. Seroconversion to gp36 occurred during the first year of life in both infants. The infant with rapid disease progression did not elicit C2V3C3-specific antibodies. Most chronically infected patients produced plasma IgG1, IgG3 and IgA antibodies against gp36 and C2V3C3. Lack of C2V3C3-specific IgG response in two patients was associated with a major antigenic change in the V3 region. In longitudinal analysis, there was a significant inverse association between the C2V3C3-specific IgG antibody response and the number of CD4 T cells. CONCLUSION: HIV-2 promotes an early, strong and broad gp36 and C2V3C3-specific IgG and IgA response. Increase in the IgG response against the envelope C2V3C3 region is associated with increased loss of CD4 T cells in chronically infected patients. These results provide further support for the immune protective role of the C2V3C3 envelope region during HIV-2 infection and have direct implications for HIV-2 diagnosis, clinical management and pathogenesis.

Direct treatment costs of HIV/AIDS in Portugal / Custos diretos com tratamento do VIH/SIDA em Portugal / Costos originados por tratamiento del VIH/SIDA en Portugal

OBJECTIVE To analyze the direct medical costs of HIV/AIDS in Portugal from the perspective of the National Health Service. METHODS A retrospective analysis of medical records was conducted for 150 patients from five specialized centers in Portugal in 2008. Data on utilization of medical resources during 12 months and patients’ characteristics were collected. A unit cost was applied to each care component using official sources and accounting data from National Health Service hospitals. RESULTS The average cost of treatment was 14,277 €/patient/year. The main cost-driver was antiretroviral treatment (€ 9,598), followed by hospitalization costs (€ 1,323). Treatment costs increased with the severity of disease from € 11,901 (> 500 CD4 cells/µl) to € 23,351 (CD4 count ≤ 50 cells/ µl). Cost progression was mainly due to the increase in hospitalization costs, while antiretroviral treatment costs remained stable over disease stages. CONCLUSIONS The high burden related to antiretroviral treatment is counterbalanced by relatively low hospitalization costs, which, however, increase with severity of disease. The relatively modest progression of total costs highlights that alternative public health strategies that do not affect transmission of disease may only have a limited impact on expenditure, since treatment costs are largely dominated by constant antiretroviral treatment costs. .

OBJETIVO Analizar los costos médicos originados por tratamiento de VIH/SIDA, de acuerdo con la perspectiva del Servicio Nacional de Salud, en Portugal. MÉTODOS Se realizó análisis retrospectivo de registros médicos en muestra de 150 pacientes de cinco centros especializados, en 2008. Se obtuvieron datos de utilización de recursos médicos y de las características de los pacientes, en horizonte temporal de 12 meses. Se aplicó el costo unitario a cada componente de costo, usando fuentes oficiales y datos de contabilidad de los hospitales. RESULTADOS El costo promedio anual del tratamiento fue de 14,277€ por paciente. La parcela de costo más importante fue el relacionado con el tratamiento antiretrovial (9,598€), seguido por los costos de internación (1,323€). Los costos de tratamiento con severidad aumentaron de 11,901€ (> 500 CD4 células/µl) para 23,351€ (CD4 ≤ 50 células/µl). La progresión de los costos se debe mayormente al aumento de los costos de internación, dado que los costos por tratamiento antiretrovial se mantienen constantes a lo largo de las fases. CONCLUSIONES El elevado costo del tratamiento antiretrovial es compensado por el costo relativamente bajo de la internación, a pesar de que éste aumenta con la severidad. La baja progresión de los costos totales revela que estrategias de salud pública alternativas que no alteren la transmisión de la enfermedad tendrán sólo impacto limitado en los gastos, dado que los costos son mayormente influenciados por el tratamiento antiretrovial. .

OBJETIVO Analisar dos custos diretos médicos com VIH/SIDA, de acordo com a perspetiva do Serviço Nacional de Saúde, em Portugal. MÉTODOS Efetuou-se análise retrospectiva de registros médicos em amostra de 150 pacientes de cinco centros especializados em 2008. Foram obtidos dados de utilização de recursos médicos durante 12 meses e das características dos pacientes nesse período. Aplicou-se o custo unitário a cada componente de custo, usando fontes oficiais e dados contabilísticos dos hospitais. RESULTADOS O custo médio anual de tratamento foi de 14.277 euros por paciente. A parcela de custo mais importante foi o custo com o tratamento antirretroviral (9.598 euros), seguido dos custos de internação (1.323 euros). Os custos de tratamento com severidade aumentaram de 11.901 euros (> 500 CD4 células/µl) para 23.351 euros (CD4 ≤ 50 células/µl). A progressão dos custos deve-se principalmente ao aumento dos custos de internação, dado que os custos com tratamento antirretroviral se mantêm constantes ao longo dos estádios. CONCLUSÕES O custo elevado do tratamento antirretroviral é compensado com o custo relativamente baixo da internação, apesar deste aumentar com a severidade. A baixa progressão dos custos totais revela que estratégias de saúde pública alternativas que não alterem a transmissão da doença terão apenas impacto limitado nas despesas, dado que os custos são largamente influenciados pelo do tratamento antirretroviral. .

Low CD4 T-cell counts despite low levels of circulating HIV: insights from the comparison of HIV-1 infected patients with a discordant response to antiretroviral therapy to patients with untreated advanced HIV-2 disease.

A significant proportion of HIV-1+ patients with suppression of viremia under antiretroviral therapy fail to recover CD4(+) T-cell counts (ART-Discordants). Similarly, untreated HIV-2+ patients can also exhibit major CD4 depletion in spite of undetectable viremia. We characterize here the immunological disturbances associated with major CD4-lymphopenia in these two scenarios as compared to untreated viremic HIV-1+ patients with similar CD4-lymphopenia and HIV-1+ patients with successful immunological and virological responses under ART. Low CD4 counts were associated with major naive CD4 and CD8 depletion, irrespective of type of infection or ART-exposure. However, ART-Discordants exhibited lower levels of T-cell activation as compared to both untreated HIV-2 and HIV-1 cohorts, and a less marked increase in circulating IL-7 despite similar CD4 depletion. Nevertheless, ART-Discordants showed a preserved Bcl-2 expression, suggesting increased IL-7 consumption, which in conjunction with the relatively lower T-cell activation may contribute to their CD4 count stability and low rate of opportunistic infections.