Peptidylarginine deiminase 2-catalyzed histone H3 arginine 26 citrullination facilitates estrogen receptor α target gene activation.

Cofactors for estrogen receptor α (ERα) can modulate gene activity by posttranslationally modifying histone tails at target promoters. Here, we found that stimulation of ERα-positive cells with 17ß-estradiol (E2) promotes global citrullination of histone H3 arginine 26 (H3R26) on chromatin. Additionally, we found that the H3 citrulline 26 (H3Cit26) modification colocalizes with ERα at decondensed chromatin loci surrounding the estrogen-response elements of target promoters. Surprisingly, we also found that citrullination of H3R26 is catalyzed by peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD) 2 and not by PAD4 (which citrullinates H4R3). Further, we showed that PAD2 interacts with ERα after E2 stimulation and that inhibition of either PAD2 or ERα strongly suppresses E2-induced H3R26 citrullination and ERα recruitment at target gene promoters. Collectively, our data suggest that E2 stimulation induces the recruitment of PAD2 to target promoters by ERα, whereby PAD2 then citrullinates H3R26, which leads to local chromatin decondensation and transcriptional activation.

Mechanistic studies of protein arginine deiminase 2: evidence for a substrate-assisted mechanism.

Citrullination, which is catalyzed by protein arginine deiminases (PADs 1-4 and 6), is a post-translational modification (PTM) that effectively neutralizes the positive charge of a guanidinium group by its replacement with a neutral urea. Given the sequence similarity of PAD2 across mammalian species and the genomic organization of the PAD2 gene, PAD2 is predicted to be the ancestral homologue of the PADs. Although PAD2 has long been known to play a role in myelination, it has only recently been linked to other cellular processes, including gene transcription and macrophage extracellular trap formation. For example, PAD2 deiminates histone H3 at R26, and this PTM leads to the increased transcription of more than 200 genes under the control of the estrogen receptor. Given that our understanding of PAD2 biology remains incomplete, we initiated mechanistic studies on this enzyme to aid the development of PAD2-specific inhibitors. Herein, we report that the substrate specificity and calcium dependence of PAD2 are similar to those of PADs 1, 3, and 4. However, unlike those isozymes, PAD2 appears to use a substrate-assisted mechanism of catalysis in which the positively charged substrate guanidinium depresses the pKa of the nucleophilic cysteine. By contrast, PADs 1, 3, and 4 use a reverse-protonation mechanism. These mechanistic differences will aid the development of isozyme-specific inhibitors.

Insights into the mechanism of streptonigrin-induced protein arginine deiminase inactivation.

Protein citrullination is just one of more than 200 known PTMs. This modification, catalyzed by the protein arginine deiminases (PADs 1-4 and PAD6 in humans), converts the positively charged guanidinium group of an arginine residue into a neutral ureido-group. Given the strong links between dysregulated PAD activity and human disease, we initiated a program to develop PAD inhibitors as potential therapeutics for these and other diseases in which the PADs are thought to play a role. Streptonigrin which possesses both anti-tumor and anti-bacterial activity was later identified as a highly potent PAD4 inhibitor. In an effort to understand why streptonigrin is such a potent and selective PAD4 inhibitor, we explored its structure-activity relationships by examining the inhibitory effects of several analogues that mimic the A, B, C, and/or D rings of streptonigrin. We report the identification of the 7-amino-quinoline-5,8-dione core of streptonigrin as a highly potent pharmacophore that acts as a pan-PAD inhibitor.

Mechanistic studies of agmatine deiminase from multiple bacterial species.

One subfamily of guanidino group-modifying enzymes (GMEs) consists of the agmatine deiminases (AgDs). These enzymes catalyze the conversion of agmatine (decarboxylated arginine) to N-carbamoyl putrescine and ammonia. In plants, viruses, and bacteria, these enzymes are thought to be involved in energy production, biosynthesis of polyamines, and biofilm formation. In particular, we are interested in the role that this enzyme plays in pathogenic bacteria. Previously, we reported the initial kinetic characterization of the agmatine deiminase from Helicobacter pylori and described the synthesis and characterization the two most potent AgD inactivators. Herein, we have expanded our initial efforts to characterize the catalytic mechanisms of AgD from H. pylori as well as Streptococcus mutans and Porphyromonas gingivalis. Through the use of pH rate profiles, pK(a) measurements of the active site cysteine, solvent isotope effects, and solvent viscosity effects, we have determined that the AgDs, like PADs 1 and 4, utilize a reverse protonation mechanism.

Substrate specificity and kinetic studies of PADs 1, 3, and 4 identify potent and selective inhibitors of protein arginine deiminase 3.

Protein citrullination has been shown to regulate numerous physiological pathways (e.g., the innate immune response and gene transcription) and is, when dysregulated, known to be associated with numerous human diseases, including cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis. This modification, also termed deimination, is catalyzed by a group of enzymes called the protein arginine deiminases (PADs). In mammals, there are five PAD family members (i.e., PADs 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6) that exhibit tissue-specific expression patterns and vary in their subcellular localization. The kinetic characterization of PAD4 was recently reported, and these efforts guided the development of the two most potent PAD4 inhibitors (i.e., F- and Cl-amidine) known to date. In addition to being potent PAD4 inhibitors, we show here that Cl-amidine also exhibits a strong inhibitory effect against PADs 1 and 3, thus indicating its utility as a pan PAD inhibitor. Given the increasing number of diseases in which dysregulated PAD activity has been implicated, the development of PAD-selective inhibitors is of paramount importance. To aid that goal, we characterized the catalytic mechanism and substrate specificity of PADs 1 and 3. Herein, we report the results of these studies, which suggest that, like PAD4, PADs 1 and 3 employ a reverse protonation mechanism. Additionally, the substrate specificity studies provided critical information that aided the identification of PAD3-selective inhibitors. These compounds, denoted F4- and Cl4-amidine, are the most potent PAD3 inhibitors ever described.

Chemical Proteomic Platform To Identify Citrullinated Proteins.

Anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPAs) are a hallmark of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and are routinely used for disease diagnosis. Protein citrullination is also increased in cancer and other autoimmune disorders, suggesting that citrullinated proteins may serve as biomarkers for diseases beyond RA. To identify these citrullinated proteins, we developed biotin-conjugated phenylglyoxal (biotin-PG). Using this probe and our platform technology, we identified >50 intracellular citrullinated proteins. More than 20 of these are involved in RNA splicing, suggesting, for the first time, that citrullination modulates RNA biology. Overall, this chemical proteomic platform will play a key role in furthering our understanding of protein citrullination in rheumatoid arthritis and potentially a wider spectrum of inflammatory diseases.

Protein arginine deiminase 2 binds calcium in an ordered fashion: implications for inhibitor design.

Protein arginine deiminases (PADs) are calcium-dependent histone-modifying enzymes whose activity is dysregulated in inflammatory diseases and cancer. PAD2 functions as an Estrogen Receptor (ER) coactivator in breast cancer cells via the citrullination of histone tail arginine residues at ER binding sites. Although an attractive therapeutic target, the mechanisms that regulate PAD2 activity are largely unknown, especially the detailed role of how calcium facilitates enzyme activation. To gain insights into these regulatory processes, we determined the first structures of PAD2 (27 in total), and through calcium-titrations by X-ray crystallography, determined the order of binding and affinity for the six calcium ions that bind and activate this enzyme. These structures also identified several PAD2 regulatory elements, including a calcium switch that controls proper positioning of the catalytic cysteine residue, and a novel active site shielding mechanism. Additional biochemical and mass-spectrometry-based hydrogen/deuterium exchange studies support these structural findings. The identification of multiple intermediate calcium-bound structures along the PAD2 activation pathway provides critical insights that will aid the development of allosteric inhibitors targeting the PADs.