Adolescents' pregnancy intentions: relations to life situations and caretaking behaviors prenatally and 2 years postpartum.

PURPOSE: This study explores if and how adolescents' pregnancy intentions relate to life situations and health-related behaviors prenatally and up to 2 years postpartum. METHODS: Adolescent girls who reported that they had "wanted a baby" (n = 75) as their reason for pregnancy were compared with those who reported that the pregnancy "just happened" (n = 79) at four separate time periods: prenatally, at 6 and 24 months postpartum, and at 18 months postpartum for teens who became pregnant again subsequent to the study pregnancy. RESULTS: Those who stated that they wanted a baby were more likely to be Hispanic, married, and out of school before becoming pregnant. They were less likely to receive welfare as their primary means of support and to have run away from home in the past than teens who stated that their pregnancy just happened. Self-reported reason for pregnancy was unrelated to repeat pregnancy by 18 months postpartum, but those who had wanted the study baby were less likely to undergo elective termination of a subsequent pregnancy and less likely to become pregnant by a different partner. The groups diverged at 24 months postpartum when those who wanted a baby were more likely to be married to the father of the baby, be financially supported by him, receive child care assistance from him, and have attempted or succeeded at breastfeeding the study child. CONCLUSION: Self-reported reason for pregnancy reveals many important characteristics of pregnant adolescents both at the time of presentation and up to 2 years postpartum. Young women in this study who reported intentional pregnancy seem to fare better with regard to their financial status and their relationship with the father of the baby.

Qualities of adolescent mothers' parenting.

PURPOSE: This study examined the interrelations among adolescent mothers' parenting attitudes, parenting confidence, and parenting stress and the potential differences in these dimensions by mothers' age, race and parity, and age and sex of child. METHODS: Subjects were 119 former adolescent mothers (M age = 20.2 years) from predominantly poor, minority backgrounds (50% Hispanic, 27% African-American, 17% non-Hispanic white). All subjects completed questionnaires about their parenting qualities twice an average of 10 weeks apart. All children were at least one year of age (M age = 37.2 months; range 12-50 months). RESULTS: Results indicated that for some mothers there exists a triple jeopardy of low parenting confidence, high parenting stress, and inappropriate parenting values. Young maternal age at delivery and young maternal age at the time of this study were associated with low child acceptance. Non-Hispanic white mothers had significantly more favorable parenting values than did African-American and Hispanic mothers, and African-American mothers reported significantly greater caretaking confidence than did Hispanic mothers. No parity or sex of child effects were found. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest the presence of meaningful patterns of convergence and within-group variation for the psychological qualities of adolescent mothers' parenting.

PIP: This study examined the interrelations among adolescent mothers' parenting attitudes, parenting confidence, and parenting stress and the potential differences in these dimensions by mothers' age, race, and parity, and age and sex of child. Subjects were 119 former adolescent mothers (mean age = 20.2 years) from predominantly poor, minority backgrounds (50% Hispanic, 27% African American, 17% non-Hispanic White). All subjects completed questionnaires about their parenting qualities twice an average of 10 weeks apart. All children were at least 1 year of age (mean age = 37.2 months; range 12-50 months). Subjects' parenting attitudes were assessed by the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory, a 32-item questionnaire. The Maternal Self-Report inventory was used to assess the mothers' self-esteem or their confidence in the mothering role. To assess the stress experienced with parenting, the Parenting Daily Hassles scale was used. Results indicated that for some mothers there exists a triple jeopardy of low parenting confidence, high parenting stress, and inappropriate parenting values. Mothers who reported feeling high parenting stress had low confidence in themselves as mothers, low empathy to their children's needs, and low acceptance of their children. Mothers who were older at the time of the study placed greater value on physical punishment and had less confidence in their caretaking abilities. Young maternal age at delivery and young maternal age at the time of this study were associated with low child acceptance. Non-Hispanic White mothers had significantly more favorable parenting values (greater empathy to child's needs and less value of physical punishment) than did African-American and Hispanic mothers, and African-American mothers reported significantly greater caretaking confidence than did Hispanic mothers. No parity or sex of child effects were found. These results suggest the presence of meaningful patterns of convergence and within-group variation for the psychological qualities of adolescent mothers' parenting.

The younger siblings of teenage mothers: a follow-up of their pregnancy risk.

This study followed 243 younger brothers and younger sisters of parenting teens and nonparenting teens across a 1.5-year period. The average age of siblings was 13.6 years at Time 1 and 15 years at Time 2. Relative to other youths, the sisters of parenting teens exhibited a sharp increase in drug and alcohol use and partying behavior across time and had the highest pregnancy rate at Time 2 (15%). The siblings of parenting teens spent 10 hr a week caring for their sisters' children, and, for girls, many hours of child care was associated with negative outcomes including permissive sexual behavior. Findings suggest that the younger sisters of parenting teens are at very high risk of early pregnancy and that this risk becomes increasingly pronounced across time.

Pregnancy risk among the younger sisters of pregnant and childbearing adolescents.

There is increasing evidence that younger sisters of childbearing teenagers are at increased risk for adolescent childbearing. We critically review this research and discuss three plausible theoretical explanations (social modeling, shared parenting influences, and shared societal risk) why the younger sisters of childbearing adolescents would themselves be at risk for teenage pregnancy. Considerations for preventive interventions aimed at the younger sisters of pregnant teenagers and directions for future research are discussed.

PIP: Social learning theory, shared parenting effects, and a shared societal risk interpretation are reviewed in order to fill the gap in understanding through what processes and under what conditions adolescent pregnancy and childbearing influence a sister's tendency toward adolescent childbearing. Each theory provides an explanation about the nature of the sister's influence on the sexual attitudes, behavior, and childbearing decisions of other children in the family. Social learning theory places emphasis on the active role of the sibling in socializing younger siblings. There may be a negative socialization process where sisters accept premarital sexual intercourse as the norm and accept single parenthood as a way to achieve adult status. The theory of shared parenting postulates that the parenting environment influences sisters through strategies of discipline and control, communication of values, and parental marital status of family structure. The theory of shared societal risk stipulates that it is the shared socioeconomic status and social class, particularly being poor, black, and from a single-parent family in an inner city neighborhood, that increases risk for early sexual initiation and pregnancy. Unfavorable social circumstances and tolerance for early unwed parenting in the black community contribute to the life course experiences of all sisters within a family. Prior to this discussion, 4 studies by Friede et al', Goldfarb et al', Hogan and Kitagawa, and Cox et al, are discussed as evidence that a strong relationship exists between the risks of adolescent sisters' childbearing. The findings of these studies show that in 3 out of 4 studies there is a 1.8-2 fold increased rate of childbearing among the sisters of pregnant and childbearing teenagers; the studies were nationally representative and involved large sample sizes. Considerations for interventions and directions for future research are also provided. Interventions must be attuned to the problems of identification, accessibility, and participation of the high risk group. A group discussion approach which includes sisters may be of benefit. Future research might consider comparisons of the 3 frameworks in order to answer how important each is in accounting for similar patterns of childbearing among sisters. Multidisciplinary approaches in behavioral pediatrics, family sociology, and developmental psychology would be beneficial.

Outcomes and parent-child relationships of former adolescent mothers and their 12-year-old children.

This study compared former adolescent mothers and their 12-year-old children with adult child-bearing mothers and their children along three dimensions: mothers' life-course characteristics (e.g., educational attainment, employment status, current annual family income); children's scholastic, psychological, social, and behavioral adjustment; and dimensions of the parent-child relationship (e.g., companionship, affection, intimacy). Results showed that adolescent mothers had significantly lower levels of completed education than adult mothers, and children of teenage mothers exhibited more learning problems (as rated by self, mother, and teacher) than children of adult mothers. Younger childbearing mothers and fathers felt they provided less esteem enhancement support to their children than older childbearing parents. In addition, early childbearing mothers felt less satisfied with their mother-child relationships, and early childbearing fathers shared fewer companionate activities with their children than adult childbearing mothers and fathers, respectively. The long-term implications of adolescent parenting for the adolescent and her child are discussed.

Pregnant and parenting adolescents and their younger sisters: the influence of relationship qualities for younger sister outcomes.

On the basis of social modeling theory and a sibling interaction hypothesis, it was hypothesized that specific relationship qualities between a pregnant or parenting teen and her younger sister would be associated with permissive younger sister outcomes, such as permissive childbearing attitudes and permissive sexual behavior. Results indicated that negative relationship qualities, such as rivalry, competition, and conflict, were more closely related to younger sisters engaging in problem delinquent-like behavior and sexual behavior than were positive relationship qualities, such as warmth and closeness. Additionally, a shared friendship network with the older sister was found to be associated with extensive younger sister problem behavior and sexual behavior. Three potential explanatory processes are discussed.

PIP: Numerous studies have found that the younger sisters of childbearing adolescents have a 2- to 4-fold increased risk of themselves becoming adolescent mothers. This finding is consistent with social modeling and behavioral theories positing that older siblings shape the sexual attitudes and norms of younger family members. The present study hypothesized that specific relationship qualities (positive and negative) between a pregnant or parenting teenager and her younger sister are associated with permissive younger sister outcomes. Enrolled in the study were 80 Black and Mexican-American younger sisters (mean age, 13.9 years) who completed a Sibling Relationship Questionnaire and measures of childbearing attitudes, school and career orientation, problem behaviors, sexual permissiveness, and sexual status. 31% had engaged in sexual intercourse at least once before the survey. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that high warmth and closeness between sisters was related to positive school and career goals and perceived older ideal ages for life transitions such as first intercourse and childbearing. However, the negative relationship qualities of rivalry, competition, and conflict were even more closely related to the probability that younger sisters would engage in delinquent-type activities and problematic sexual behaviors than positive relationship qualities. In addition, a shared friendship network with the older sister was associated with a substantial increase in behavioral problems in the younger sister. Additional research should be directed toward identifying the pathways of sibling influence.

Past physical abuse is significantly correlated with pregnancy as an adolescent.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine which type or types of childhood abuse are associated with adolescent pregnancy and other adverse health outcomes. DESIGN: 100 females between the ages of 12 and 24 years of age, attending either an adolescent/young adult clinic (for ages 12 to 24), or teen obstetrics clinic (for ages 13 to 18) at an urban academic medical center, were recruited to participate in an interview study during their clinic visit. The clinician or research assistant used a 186-item structured interview form to record answers to detailed questions on abuse, in addition to traditional questions about the patient's feelings on home, education, activities, drugs and depression, sex and suicide (HEADS). RESULTS: 32% of subjects reported a history of sexual abuse, 29% reported physical abuse, and 46% reported past emotional abuse. The frequency of any past abuse was significantly higher in girls who had ever been pregnant (29 of 50, 58%), compared with "never pregnant" girls (19 of 49, 38%)( P < .05). A past history of physical abuse (P = .04), but not sexual or emotional abuse, was significantly associated with pregnancy as a teen. Other factors significantly correlated with teen pregnancy were: frequent alcohol use, older age, and Mexican-American or African-American ethnicity. Past history of abuse was significantly correlated with depression, suicidal thoughts, absent father, school failure, alcohol and tobacco use, and delinquency. CONCLUSIONS: A history of past physical abuse is strongly associated with adolescent pregnancy, and questions about all types of abuse should be routinely asked of adolescent patients.

The younger sisters of childbearing adolescents: their attitudes, expectations, and behaviors.

To examine the precursors of the disproportionately high rates of early childbearing among the younger sisters of adolescent mothers, this study compared the attitudes, expectations, and behaviors of early adolescent girls (M age = 12.93) who had an adolescent childbearing sister (n = 75) to those of early adolescent girls who had only adolescent nonchildbearing sisters (n = 348). Results indicated that the younger sisters of childbearing adolescents were consistently different from the younger sisters of nonchildbearing adolescents on key characteristics known to be correlated with early sexual activity and adolescent childbearing: that is, they were more accepting of nonmarital adolescent childbearing, perceived younger ages for typical life-course transitions (best age to get married, have first child), had more pessimistic school and career expectations, and were more likely to have engaged in problem behaviors (smoke cigarettes, skip school). These younger sister characteristics were associated with a nonvirgin sexual status in the current sample and with high closeness and high rivalry with the childbearing sister but could not be accounted for by such within-family experiences as subjects' mothers' permissiveness or lack of mother-daughter communication. Findings suggest the mechanisms by which the younger sisters of childbearing teens themselves become vulnerable to early parenthood.

Do adolescent pregnancy and childbearing affect younger siblings?

To understand the consequences of adolescent pregnancy and childbearing on siblings, a study compares 309 younger brothers and sisters of pregnant, parenting and never-pregnant teenagers. Compared with the younger siblings of never-pregnant teenagers, the younger sisters of pregnant teenagers see school and career as less important, are more accepting of adolescent childbearing, perceive younger ages as appropriate for first intercourse, marriage and childbearing and engage in more problem behavior. The younger sisters of parenting teenagers are more accepting of teenage childbearing than are younger sisters of never-pregnant teenagers and have more definite intentions of having a child at a young age. Compared with boys who have a never-pregnant older sister, younger brothers of pregnant and parenting teenagers are more accepting of nonmarital childbearing, ascribe more importance to childbearing, perceive fewer problems related to early childbearing, have lower self-esteem and report engaging in more drug use and partying behavior.

Risks among youths who have multiple sisters who were adolescent parents.

CONTEXT: Past research has revealed that having a sister who gave birth as a teenager is associated with increases in young people's likelihood of engaging in risky sexual behavior. To date, however, no study has determined if having several sisters who were adolescent mothers further raises youths' chances of engaging in risky activities. METHODS: Data were collected from 1,510 predominantly Hispanic and black 11-17-year-olds in a California program for youths who have at least one pregnant or parenting sister. Correlational analyses, analyses of variance and regression analyses were conducted to assess the effects of having multiple teenage parenting sisters on a variety of outcomes that are known risk factors for teenage pregnancy RESULTS: Twenty-four percent of participants had two or more sisters who had given birth as teenagers. The likelihood of having multiple adolescent parenting sisters was greatest in large families, but was unrelated to youths' other background characteristics. In analyses controlling for background factors, females with many parenting sisters had increased levels of behavioral problems (school problems, drug or alcohol use, and delinquent behavior) and an elevated likelihood of being sexually experienced. Having lived with two or more parenting sisters (as opposed to having lived with only one) was related to more permissive sexual and childbearing attitudes among young women and to earlier first intercourse among young men. Males with a sister who gave birth at a young age had elevated levels of delinquent behavior and promiscuous sexual behavior. CONCLUSIONS: As the number of teenage parenting sisters rises, youths'--particularly females'--risk of pregnancy involvement increases beyond the level associated with having only one teenage parenting sister. Screening for the number, living situation and age at first birth of parenting sisters is likely to be useful for programs seeking to identify youths at high risk of an early pregnancy.