Constructing Hollow Microcubes SnS2 as Negative Electrode for Sodium-ion and Potassium-ion Batteries.

Sodium/potassium-ion batteries (NIBs and KIBs) are considered the most promising candidates for lithium-ion batteries in energy storage fields. Tin sulfide (SnS2) is regarded as an attractive negative candidate for NIBs and KIBs thanks to its superior power density, high-rate performance and natural richness. Nevertheless, the slow dynamics, the enormous volume change and the decomposition of polysulfide intermediates limit its practical application. Herein, microcubes SnS2 were prepared through sacrificial MnCO3 template-assisted and a facile solvothermal reaction strategy and their performance was investigated in Na and K-based cells. The unique hollow cubic structure and well-confined SnS2 nanosheets play an important role in Na+/K+ rapid kinetic and alleviating volume change. The effect of the carbon additives (Super P/C65) on the electrochemical properties were investigated thoroughly. The in operando and ex-situ characterization provide a piece of direct evidence to clarify the storage mechanism of such conversion-alloying type negative electrode materials.

Probing Particle-Carbon/Binder Degradation Behavior in Fatigued Layered Cathode Materials through Machine Learning Aided Diffraction Tomography.

Understanding how reaction heterogeneity impacts cathode materials during Li-ion battery (LIB) electrochemical cycling is pivotal for unraveling their electrochemical performance. Yet, experimentally verifying these reactions has proven to be a challenge. To address this, we employed scanning µ-XRD computed tomography to scrutinize Ni-rich layered LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2 (NCM622) and Li-rich layered Li[Li0.2Ni0.2Mn0.6]O2 (LLNMO). By harnessing machine learning (ML) techniques, we scrutinized an extensive dataset of µ-XRD patterns, about 100,000 patterns per slice, to unveil the spatial distribution of crystalline structure and microstrain. Our experimental findings unequivocally reveal the distinct behavior of these materials. NCM622 exhibits structural degradation and lattice strain intricately linked to the size of secondary particles. Smaller particles and the surface of larger particles in contact with the carbon/binder matrix experience intensified structural fatigue after long-term cycling. Conversely, both the surface and bulk of LLNMO particles endure severe strain-induced structural degradation during high-voltage cycling, resulting in significant voltage decay and capacity fade. This work holds the potential to fine-tune the microstructure of advanced layered materials and manipulate composite electrode construction in order to enhance the performance of LIBs and beyond.

Electrochemical Investigation of Calcium Substituted Monoclinic Li3 V2 (PO4 )3 Negative Electrode Materials for Sodium- and Potassium-Ion Batteries.

Herein, the electrochemical properties and reaction mechanism of Li3-2 x Cax V2 (PO4 )3 /C (x = 0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5) as negative electrode materials for sodium-ion/potassium-ion batteries (SIBs/PIBs) are investigated. All samples undergo a mixed contribution of diffusion-controlled and pseudocapacitive-type processes in SIBs and PIBs via Trasatti Differentiation Method, while the latter increases with Ca content increase. Among them, Li3 V2 (PO4 )3 /C exhibits the highest reversible capacity in SIBs and PIBs, while Ca1.5 V2 (PO4 )3 /C shows the best rate performance with a capacity retention of 46% at 20 C in SIBs and 47% at 10 C in PIBs. This study demonstrates that the specific capacity of this type of material in SIBs and PIBs does not increase with the Ca-content as previously observed in lithium-ion system, but the stability and performance at a high C-rate can be improved by replacing Li+ with Ca2+ . This indicates that the insertion of different monovalent cations (Na+ /K+ ) can strongly influence the redox reaction and structure evolution of the host materials, due to the larger ion size of Na+ and K+ and their different kinetic properties with respect to Li+ . Furthermore, the working mechanism of both LVP/C and Ca1.5 V2 (PO4 )3 /C in SIBs are elucidated via in operando synchrotron diffraction and in operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy.

Long-Range Cationic Disordering Induces two Distinct Degradation Pathways in Co-Free Ni-Rich Layered Cathodes.

Ni-rich layered oxides are one of the most attractive cathode materials in high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries, their degradation mechanisms are still not completely elucidated. Herein, we report a strong dependence of degradation pathways on the long-range cationic disordering of Co-free Ni-rich Li1-m (Ni0.94 Al0.06 )1+m O2 (NA). Interestingly, a disordered layered phase with lattice mismatch can be easily formed in the near-surface region of NA particles with very low cation disorder (NA-LCD, m≤0.06) over electrochemical cycling, while the layered structure is basically maintained in the core of particles forming a "core-shell" structure. Such surface reconstruction triggers a rapid capacity decay during the first 100 cycles between 2.7 and 4.3 V at 1 C or 3 C. On the contrary, the local lattice distortions are gradually accumulated throughout the whole NA particles with higher degrees of cation disorder (NA-HCD, 0.06≤m≤0.15) that lead to a slow capacity decay upon cycling.

Structural Origin of Suppressed Voltage Decay in Single-Crystalline Li-Rich Layered Li[Li0.2 Ni0.2 Mn0.6 ]O2 Cathodes.

Lithium- and manganese-rich layered oxides (LMLOs, ≥ 250 mAh g-1 ) with polycrystalline morphology always suffer from severe voltage decay upon cycling because of the anisotropic lattice strain and oxygen release induced chemo-mechanical breakdown. Herein, a Co-free single-crystalline LMLO, that is, Li[Li0.2 Ni0.2 Mn0.6 ]O2 (LLNMO-SC), is prepared via a Li+ /Na+ ion-exchange reaction. In situ synchrotron-based X-ray diffraction (sXRD) results demonstrate that relatively small changes in lattice parameters and reduced average micro-strain are observed in LLNMO-SC compared to its polycrystalline counterpart (LLNMO-PC) during the charge-discharge process. Specifically, the as-synthesized LLNMO-SC exhibits a unit cell volume change as low as 1.1% during electrochemical cycling. Such low strain characteristics ensure a stable framework for Li-ion insertion/extraction, which considerably enhances the structural stability of LLNMO during long-term cycling. Due to these peculiar benefits, the average discharge voltage of LLNMO-SC decreases by only ≈0.2 V after 100 cycles at 28 mA g-1 between 2.0 and 4.8 V, which is much lower than that of LLNMO-PC (≈0.5 V). Such a single-crystalline strategy offers a promising solution to constructing stable high-energy lithium-ion batteries (LIBs).

Multi-analyser detector (MAD) for high-resolution and high-energy powder X-ray diffraction.

For high-resolution powder diffraction in material science, high photon energies are necessary, especially for in situ and in operando experiments. For this purpose, a multi-analyser detector (MAD) was developed for the high-energy beamline P02.1 at PETRA III of the Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY). In order to be able to adjust the detector for the high photon energies of 60 keV, an individually adjustable analyser-crystal setup was designed. The adjustment is performed via piezo stepper motors for each of the ten channels. The detector shows a low and flat background as well as a high signal-to-noise ratio. A range of standard materials were measured for characterizing the performance. Two exemplary experiments were performed to demonstrate the potential for sophisticated structural analysis with the MAD: (i) the structure of a complex material based on strontium niobate titanate and strontium niobate zirconate was determined and (ii) an in situ stroboscopy experiment with an applied electric field on a highly absorbing piezoceramic was performed. These experiments demonstrate the capabilities of the new MAD, which advances the frontiers of the structural characterization of materials.

Dielectric Relaxation and Magnetic Structure of A-Site-Ordered Perovskite Oxide Semiconductor CaCu3Fe2Ta2O12.

A new perovskite oxide semiconductor, CaCu3Fe2Ta2O12, was synthesized through a high-pressure and high-temperature approach. The compound possesses an Im3̅ space group, where it crystallizes to an A-site-ordered but B-site partial ordered quadruple perovskite structure. Spin ordering occurs around 150 K owing to the antiferromagnetic coupling between Fe3+ spins and ferromagnetic coupling between Cu2+ spins. The room-temperature dielectric permittivity of CaCu3Fe2Ta2O12 was measured to be approximately 2500 at 1 kHz. More importantly, isothermal frequency-dielectric spectroscopy demonstrates the existence of two dielectric relaxations. Debye-like relaxation is attributed to charge carriers trapped among the oxygen vacancies at low temperatures and Maxwell-Wagner polarization relaxation at high temperatures. CaCu3Fe2Ta2O12 is a new magnetic semiconductor, where A-site ordering is intercorrelated with second-order Jahn-Teller distortion. These findings offer opportunities to design novel perovskite oxides with attractive magnetic and dielectric properties.

Peroxo Species Formed in the Bulk of Silicate Cathodes.

Oxygen redox in Li-rich oxides may boost the energy density of lithium-ion batteries by incorporating oxygen chemistry in solid cathodes. However, oxygen redox in the bulk usually entangles with voltage hysteresis and oxygen release, resulting in a prolonged controversy in literature on oxygen transformation. Here, we report spectroscopic evidence of peroxo species formed and confined in silicate cathodes amid oxygen redox at high voltage, accompanied by Co2+ /Co3+ redox dominant at low voltage. First-principles calculations reveal that localized electrons on dangling oxygen drive the O-O dimerization. The covalence between the binding cation and the O-O dimer determines the degree of electron transfer in oxygen transformation. Dimerization induces irreversible structural distortion and slow kinetics. But peroxo formation can minimize the voltage drop and volume expansion in cumulative cationic and anionic redox. These findings offer insights into oxygen redox in the bulk for the rational design of high-energy-density cathodes.

In Operando Synchrotron Diffraction and in Operando X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy Investigations of Orthorhombic V2O5 Nanowires as Cathode Materials for Mg-Ion Batteries.

Orthorhombic V2O5 nanowires were successfully synthesized via a hydrothermal method. A cell-configuration system was built utilizing V2O5 as the cathode and 1 M Mg(ClO4)2 electrolyte within acetonitrile, together with Mg xMo6S8 ( x ≈ 2) as the anode to investigate the structural evolution and oxidation state and local structural changes of V2O5. The V2O5 nanowires deliver an initial discharge/charge capacity of 103 mAh g-1/110 mAh g-1 and the highest discharge capacity of 130 mAh g-1 in the sixth cycle at C/20 rate in the cell-configuration system. In operando synchrotron diffraction and in operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy together with ex situ Raman and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy reveal the reversibility of magnesium insertion/extraction and provide information on the crystal structure evolution and changes of the oxidation states during cycling.

Observation of electrochemically active Fe3+/Fe4+ in LiCo0.8Fe0.2MnO4 by in situ Mössbauer spectroscopy and X-ray absorption spectroscopy.

LiCo0.8Fe0.2MnO4 has been investigated as an active material for the positive electrode in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with a discharge potential of around 5 V (vs. Li+|Li). After synthesis by a Pechini based sol-gel route, the structural and morphological properties have been investigated by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, 7Li MAS NMR spectroscopy, and 57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy. With galvanostatic cycling, it was possible to obtain a specific discharge capacity of 117 mA h g-1, which is more than 80% of the theoretical capacity. The lithium extraction/insertion mechanism has been characterized by in situ synchrotron powder diffraction. The reversible oxidation process of Fe3+ to Fe4+ has been observed by in situ Mössbauer spectroscopy and in situ XAS measurements.

Lithium Diffusion Pathway in Li(1.3)Al(0.3)Ti(1.7)(PO4)3 (LATP) Superionic Conductor.

The Al-substituted LiTi2(PO4)3 powders Li(1+x)Al(x)Ti(2-x)(PO4)3 (LATP) were successfully prepared by a water-based sol-gel process with subsequent calcination and sintering. The crystal structure of obtained samples was characterized at different temperatures using high-resolution synchrotron-based X-ray and neutron powder diffraction. Possible lithium diffusion pathways were initially evaluated using the difference bond-valence approach. Experimental 3D lithium diffusion pathway in LATP was extracted from the negative nuclear density maps reconstructed by the maximum entropy method. Evaluation of the energy landscape determining the lithium diffusion process in NASICON-type superionic conductor is shown for the first time.

Layered-to-Tunnel Structure Transformation and Oxygen Redox Chemistry in LiRhO2 upon Li Extraction and Insertion.

Layered Li(M,Li)O2 (where M is a transition metal) ordered rock-salt-type structures are used in advanced metal-ion batteries as one of the best hosts for the reversible intercalation of Li ions. Besides the conventional redox reaction involving oxidation/reduction of the M cation upon Li extraction/insertion, creating oxygen-located holes because of the partial oxygen oxidation increases capacity while maintaining the oxidized oxygen species in the lattice through high covalency of the M-O bonding. Typical degradation mechanism of the Li(M,Li)O2 electrodes involves partially irreversible M cation migration toward the Li positions, resulting in gradual capacity/voltage fade. Here, using LiRhO2 as a model system (isostructural and isoelectronic to LiCoO2), for the first time, we demonstrate an intimate coupling between the oxygen redox and M cation migration. A formation of the oxidized oxygen species upon electrochemical Li extraction coincides with transformation of the layered Li1-xRhO2 structure into the γ-MnO2-type rutile-ramsdellite intergrowth LiyRh3O6 structure with rutile-like [1 × 1] channels along with bigger ramsdellite-like [2 × 1] tunnels through massive and concerted Rh migration toward the empty positions in the Li layers. The oxidized oxygen dimers with the O-O distances as short as 2.26 Å are stabilized in this structure via the local Rh-O configuration reminiscent to that in the µ-peroxo-µ-hydroxo Rh complexes. The LiyRh3O6 structure is remarkably stable upon electrochemical cycling illustrating that proper structural implementation of the oxidized oxygen species can open a pathway toward deliberate employment of the anion redox chemistry in high-capacity/high-voltage positive electrodes for metal-ion batteries.

Electrochemical lithiation/delithiation of SnP2O7 observed by in situ XRD and ex situ7Li/³¹P NMR, and ¹¹9Sn Mössbauer spectroscopy.

SnP2O7 was prepared by a sol-gel route. The structural changes of tin pyrophosphate during the electrochemical lithiation were followed by using in situ XRD measurements that reveal the existence of a crystalline phase at the beginning of the discharge process. Nevertheless, it becomes amorphous after the full discharge as a result of a conversion reaction leading to the formation of LixSny alloys. The electrochemical tests show a high capacity with high retention upon cycling. To better understand the reaction mechanism of SnP2O7 with Li, several techniques were applied, such as ex situ(119)Sn Mössbauer and ex situ(7)Li and (31)P NMR spectroscopies with which we can follow the changes in the local environment of each element during cycling.

Identifying the redox activity of cation-disordered Li-Fe-V-Ti oxide cathodes for Li-ion batteries.

Cation-disordered oxides have recently shown promising properties on the way to explore high-performance intercalation cathode materials for rechargeable Li-ion batteries. Here, stoichiometric cation-disordered Li2FeVyTi1-yO4 (y = 0, 0.2, 0.5) nanoparticles are studied. The substitution of V for Ti in Li2FeVyTi1-yO4 increases the content of active transition metals (Fe and V) and accordingly the amount of Li(+) (about (1 + y)Li(+) capacity per formula unit) that can be reversibly intercalated. It is found that Fe(3+)/Fe(2+) and V(4+)/V(3+) redox couples contribute to the overall capacity performance, whereas Ti(4+) remains mainly inert. There is no evidence for the presence of Fe(4+) species after charging to 4.8 V, as confirmed from the ex situ(57)Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy and the Fe K-edge absorption spectra. The redox couple reactions for iron and vanadium are examined by performing in situ synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy. During charging/discharging, the spectral evolution of the K-edges for Fe and V confirms the reversible Fe(3+)/Fe(2+) and V(4+)/V(3+) redox reactions during cycling between 1.5 and 4.8 V.

Nanoscale spinel LiFeTiO4 for intercalation pseudocapacitive Li(+) storage.

Intercalation pseudocapacitive Li(+) storage has been recognized recently in metal oxide materials, wherein Li(+) intercalation into the lattice is not solid-state diffusion-limited. This may bridge the performance gap between electrochemical capacitors and battery materials. To date, only a few materials with desired crystal structure and with well-defined nanoarchitectures have been found to exhibit such attractive behaviour. Herein, we report for the first time that nanoscale spinel LiFeTiO4 as a cathode material for Li-ion batteries exhibits intercalation pseudocapacitive Li(+) storage behaviour. Nanoscale LiFeTiO4 nanoparticles with native carbon coating were synthesized by a sol-gel route. A fast and large-amount of Li(+) storage (up to 1.6 Li(+) per formula unit over cycling) in the nanoscale LiFeTiO4 host has been achieved without compromising kinetics.

Towards Sustainable Direct Recycling: Unraveling Structural Degradation Induced by Thermal Pretreatment of Lithium-Ion Battery Electrodes.

As the demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) continues to increase, there is a growing focus on recycling these battery wastes. Among the existing recycling methods, direct recycling is considered a promising approach, because it allows waste to be returned directly to production. One crucial step is the  pretreatment, which involves separating the active materials from the current collector. Thermal treatment provides a feasible and effective approach for achieving this separation. However, there are still concerns regarding the potential impact of this process on the structure and composition of electrodes. This study aims to examine the effects of thermal treatment on the separation efficiency and crystal structure of fresh and cycled NMC (LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2) cathodes and graphitic anodes, under different atmospheres and temperatures. According to the research findings, 350°C is the lowest temperature required for complete separation of cathode materials in an oxygen atmosphere, with only minor structural degradation. In the case of graphite, thermal treatment under argon, nitrogen and hydrogen demonstrates good structural stability. However, for cycled anodes, the desired separation is not achieved due to the possible interface adhesion that occurs during cycling and heating. Additionally, compared to fresh materials, cycled materials experience more pronounced structural degradation during thermal treatment.

Characterization and Comparative Study of Energy Efficient Mechanochemically Induced NASICON Sodium Solid Electrolyte Synthesis.

In recent years, there is growing interest in solid-state electrolytes due to their many promising properties, making them key to the future of battery technology. This future depends among other things on easy processing technologies for the solid electrolyte. The sodium superionic conductor (NASICON) Na3 Zr2 Si2 PO12 is a promising sodium solid electrolyte; however, reported methods of synthesis are time consuming. To this effect, attempt was made to develop a simple time efficient alternative processing route. Firstly, a comparative study between a new method and commonly reported methods was carried out to gain a clear insight into the mechanism of formation of sodium superionic conductors (NASICON). It was observed that through a careful selection of precursors, and the use of high-energy milling (HEM) the NASICON conversion process was enhanced and optimized, this reduces the processing time and required energy, opening up a new alternative route for synthesis. The obtained solid electrolyte was stable during Na cycling vs. Na-metal at 1 mA cm-1 , and a room temperature conductivity of 1.8 mS cm-1 was attained.

Modification of Al Surface via Acidic Treatment and its Impact on Plating and Stripping.

Amorphous Al2 O3 film that naturally exists on any Al substrate is a critical bottleneck for the cyclic performance of metallic Al in rechargeable Al batteries. The so-called electron/ion insulator Al oxide slows down the anode's activation and hinders Al plating/stripping. The Al2 O3 film induces different surface properties (roughness and microstructure) on the metal. Al foils present two optically different sides (shiny and non-shiny), but their surface properties and influence on plating and stripping have not been studied so far. Compared to the shiny side, the non-shiny one has a higher (~28 %) surface roughness, and its greater concentration of active sites (for Al plating and stripping) yields higher current densities. Immersion pretreatments in Ionic-Liquid/AlCl3 -based electrolyte with various durations modify the surface properties of each side, forming an electrode-electrolyte interphase layer rich in Al, Cl, and N. The created interphase layer provides more tunneling paths for better Al diffusion upon plating and stripping. After 500 cycles, dendritic Al deposition, generated active sites, and the continuous removal of the Al metal and oxide cause accelerated local corrosion and electrode pulverization. We highlight the mechanical surface properties of cycled Al foil, considering the role of immersion pretreatment and the differences between the two sides.

Using Hierarchically Structured, Nanoporous Particles as Building Blocks for NCM111 Cathodes.

Nanoparticles have many advantages as active materials, such as a short diffusion length, low charge transfer resistance, or a reduced probability of cracking. However, their low packing density makes them unsuitable for commercial battery applications. Hierarchically structured microparticles are synthesized from nanoscale primary particles by targeted aggregation. Due to their open accessible porosity, they retain the advantages of nanomaterials but can be packed much more densely. However, the intrinsic porosity of the secondary particles leads to limitations in processing properties and increases the overall porosity of the electrode, which must be balanced against the improved rate stability and increased lifetime. This is demonstrated for an established cathode material for lithium-ion batteries (LiNi0.33Co0.33Mn0.33O2, NCM111). For active materials with low electrical or ionic conductivity, especially post-lithium systems, hierarchically structured particles are often the only way to produce competitive electrodes.

MnO2 superstructure cathode with boosted zinc ion intercalation for aqueous zinc ion batteries.

The simultaneous intercalation of protons and Zn2+ ions in aqueous electrolytes presents a significant obstacle to the widespread adoption of aqueous zinc ion batteries (AZIBs) for large-scale use, a challenge that has yet to be overcome. To address this, we have developed a MnO2/tetramethylammonium (TMA) superstructure with an enlarged interlayer spacing, designed specifically to control H+/Zn2+ co-intercalation in AZIBs. Within this superstructure, the pre-intercalated TMA+ ions work as spacers to stabilize the layered structure of MnO2 cathodes and expand the interlayer spacing substantially by 28 % to 0.92 nm. Evidence from in operando pH measurements, in operando synchrotron X-ray diffraction, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy shows that the enlarged interlayer spacing facilitates the diffusion and intercalation of Zn2+ ions (which have a large ionic radius) into the MnO2 cathodes. This spacing also helps suppress the competing H+ intercalation and the formation of detrimental Zn4(OH)6SO4·5H2O, thereby enhancing the structural stability of MnO2. As a result, enhanced Zn2+ storage properties, including excellent capacity and long cycle stability, are achieved.