Diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders-INfORM recommendations: Comprehensive and short-form adaptations for children.

BACKGROUND: The Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (DC/TMD) are used worldwide in adults. Until now, no adaptation for use in children has been proposed. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to present comprehensive and short-form adaptations of Axis I and Axis II of the DC/TMD for adults that are appropriate for use with children in clinical and research settings. METHODS: Global Delphi studies with experts in TMDs and in pain psychology identified ways of adapting the DC/TMD for children. RESULTS: The proposed adaptation is suitable for children aged 6-9 years. Proposed changes in Axis I include (i) adapting the language of the Demographics and the Symptom Questionnaires to be developmentally appropriate for children, (ii) adding a general health questionnaire for children and one for their parents, (iii) replacing the TMD Pain Screener with the 3Q/TMD questionnaire and (iv) modifying the clinical examination protocol. Proposed changes in Axis II include (i) for the Graded Chronic Pain Scale, to be developmentally appropriate for children, (ii) adding anxiety and depression assessments that have been validated in children and (iii) adding three constructs (stress, catastrophising and sleep disorders) to assess psychosocial functioning in children. CONCLUSION: The recommended DC/TMD, including Axis I and Axis II, for children aged 6-9 years, is appropriate for use in clinical and research settings. This adapted the first version for children includes changes in Axis I and Axis II changes requiring reliability and validity testing in international settings. Official translations to different languages according to INfORM requirements will enable a worldwide dissemination and implementation.

Diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders-INfORM recommendations: Comprehensive and short-form adaptations for adolescents.

BACKGROUND: The Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (DC/TMD) for use in adults is in use worldwide. Until now, no version of this instrument for use in adolescents has been proposed. OBJECTIVE: To present comprehensive and short-form adaptations of the adult version of DC/TMD that are appropriate for use with adolescents in clinical and research settings. METHODS: International experts in TMDs and experts in pain psychology participated in a Delphi process to identify ways of adapting the DC/TMD protocol for physical and psychosocial assessment of adolescents. RESULTS: The proposed adaptation defines adolescence as ages 10-19 years. Changes in the physical diagnosis (Axis I) include (i) adapting the language of the Demographics and the Symptom Questionnaires to be developmentally appropriate for adolescents, (ii) adding two general health questionnaires, one for the adolescent patient and one for their caregivers and (iii) replacing the TMD Pain Screener with the 3Q/TMD questionnaire. Changes in the psychosocial assessment (Axis II) include (i) adapting the language of the Graded Chronic Pain Scale to be developmentally appropriate for adolescents, (ii) adding anxiety and depression assessment that have been validated for adolescents and (iii) adding three constructs (stress, catastrophizing and sleep disorders) to assess psychosocial functioning in adolescents. CONCLUSION: The recommended DC/TMD, including Axis I and Axis II for adolescents, is appropriate to use in clinical and research settings. This adapted first version for adolescents includes changes in Axis I and Axis II requiring reliability and validity testing in international settings. Official translations of the comprehensive and short-form to different languages according to INfORM requirements will enable a worldwide dissemination and implementation.

Diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders in children and adolescents: An international Delphi study-Part 2-Development of Axis II.

BACKGROUND: Unlike the psychosocial assessment established for adults in the Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (DC/TMD), a standardised psychosocial assessment for children and adolescents with TMD complaints has not yet been established. OBJECTIVES: To develop a new standardised instrument set to assess the psychosocial functioning in children and adolescents by adapting the psychosocial status and pain-related disability (Axis II) of the adult DC/TMD and by including new instruments. METHODS: A modified Delphi method was used to survey 23 international TMD experts and four international experts in pain-related psychological factors for consensus regarding assessment tools for psychosocial functioning and pain-related disability in children and adolescents. The TMD experts reviewed 29 Axis II statements at round 1, 13 at round 2 and 2 at round 3. Agreement was set at 80% for first-round consensus level and 70% for each of the second and third rounds. The psychological experts completed a complementary Delphi survey to reach a consensus on tools to use to assess more complex psychological domains in children and adolescents. For the psychological experts, the first round included 10 open-ended questions on preferred screening tools for depression, anxiety, catastrophising, sleep problems and stress in children (ages 6-9 years old) and adolescents (ages 10-19 years old) as well as on other domains suggested for investigation. In the second round, the psychological experts received a 9-item questionnaire to prioritise the suggested instruments from most to least recommended. RESULTS: The TMD experts, after three Delphi rounds, reached consensus on the changes of DC/TMD to create a form to evaluate Axis II in children and adolescents with TMD complaints. The psychological experts added tools to assess depression and anxiety, sleep disorders, catastrophising, stress and resilience. CONCLUSION: Through international expert consensus, this study adapted Axis II of the adult DC/TMD to assess psychosocial functioning and pain-related disability in children and adolescents. The adapted Axis II protocols will be validated in the target populations.

Diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders (DC/TMD) for children and adolescents: An international Delphi study-Part 1-Development of Axis I.

BACKGROUND: Since in children and adolescence prevalence is assessed mainly on self-reported or proxy-reported signs and symptoms; there is a need to develop a more comprehensive standardised process for the collection of clinical information and the diagnosis of TMD in these populations. OBJECTIVE: To develop new instruments and to adapt the diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders (DC/TMD) for the evaluation of TMD in children and adolescents. METHOD: A modified Delphi method was used to seek international consensus among TMD experts. Fourteen clinicians and researchers in the field of oro-facial pain and TMD worldwide were invited to participate in a workshop initiated by the International Network for Orofacial Pain and Related Disorders Methodology (INfORM scientific network) at the General Session of the International Association for Dental Research (IADR, London 2018), as the first step in the Delphi process. Participants discussed the protocols required to make physical diagnoses included in the Axis I of the DC/TMD. Thereafter, nine experts in the field were added, and the first Delphi round was created. This survey included 60 statements for Axis I, and the experts were asked to respond to each statement on a five-item Likert scale ranging from 'Strongly disagree' to 'Strongly agree'. Consensus level was set at 80% agreement for the first round, and at 70% for the next. RESULTS: After three rounds of the Delphi process, a consensus among TMD experts was achieved and two adapted DC/TMD protocols for Axis I physical diagnoses for children and adolescents were developed. CONCLUSION: Through international consensus among TMD experts, this study adapted the Axis I of the DC/TMD for use in evaluating TMD in children and adolescents.

Do preterm-born adolescents have a poorer oral health-related quality of life?

BACKGROUND: To evaluate oral health-related quality of life (OHRQoL) over a period of five years using the Oral Health Impact Profile (OHIP-14) questionnaire in a population of Swedish adolescents born preterm and full term. METHODS: In a longitudinal study of adolescents aged 12-14 and 17-19, changes over time in OHRQoL were measured by using OHIP-14. The OHIP-14 score, self-reported chronic illness, temporomandibular disorder (TMD pain) and subjective orthodontic treatment need were compared between 98 extremely and very preterm born (< 32 gestational week) and 93 full-term controls (≥ 37 gestational week) at two ages. The chi-square test was used for comparisons within the extremely-, very-, and full-term control groups, and to contrast the differences of mean scores of OHIP-14, the ANOVA test was used for comparisons within the study groups of extremely preterm, very preterm and full term-born adolescents. RESULTS: All adolescents reported a good self-perceived OHRQoL. No significant differences in the comparisons of the total mean scores were revealed between the groups, between gender or in domain-specific scores over the 5-year period. Very preterm adolescents with reported chronic illness at 12-14 years of age showed significantly higher mean scores of OHIP-14 compared with those without chronic illness (p = 0.015). At age 17-19, significantly higher mean scores of OHIP-14 were reported by very preterm adolescents with TMD pain compared to those without TMD pain (p = 0.024). Significantly higher mean scores of OHIP-14 were found among the extremely preterm (p = 0.011) and very preterm born adolescents (p = 0.031) with a subjective need of orthodontic treatment compared with those without orthodontic treatment need. CONCLUSIONS: Poor OHRQoL measured with OHIP-14 in very preterm adolescents aged 12-14 was related to chronic illness and aged 17-19 to TMD pain. In addition, extremely and very preterm-born adolescents with subjective orthodontic treatment need at 17-19 years of age also reported poor OHRQoL. To improve the dentist-patient relationship and achieve more successful treatment results, it is important for dental clinicians to understand the impact that chronic illness, TMD pain and orthodontic treatment need has on OHRQoL in preterm-born adolescents.

Tooth wear in Swedish adults-A cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Tooth wear has been recognised as a growing oral health problem in children and adolescents, with erosion often cited as the main cause of the tooth wear. Most studies on tooth wear have been conducted on children and adolescents, and only few studies focus on adults. Our aim was to study the prevalence of different types of tooth wear in an adult population and investigate related factors to tooth wear. METHODS: A total of 831 adults in Sweden participated in the study by completing a questionnaire about oral health, a clinical examination, saliva sample and intraoral photographs. Tooth wear was estimated according to the Basic Erosive Wear Examination index, and the aetiology was determined based on the clinical appearance. RESULTS: Almost 80% of the individuals had signs of erosion, and over 90% had signs of attrition. A high level of tooth wear was found in 4.6% of the individuals, few of who reported having received information about both attrition and erosion. Significantly, more men had tooth wear. Daily consumption of fruit had a stronger correlation to tooth wear than acidic drinks. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION: A high level of tooth wear was found in 4.6% of the individuals, and it was more common in men than women. Aside from attrition, tooth wear due to erosion was a frequent finding in adults. Only a few of the individuals with a high level of tooth wear reported to have received information about tooth wear from their dentist or dental hygienist.

Tinnitus as a comorbidity to temporomandibular disorders-A systematic review.

The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the prevalence of tinnitus in patients with temporomandibular disorders (TMD) and the possible effects of TMD treatment on tinnitus symptoms. A search of the PubMed, Web of Science and Cochrane databases from inception of each database up to January 2017 found 222 articles. After independent screening of abstracts by two of the authors, we assessed 46 articles in full text. The inclusion and exclusion criteria reduced these to 25 articles of which 22 studies reported prevalence based on 13 358 patients and 33 876 controls, and eight studies reported effect of TMD treatment on tinnitus based on 536 patients and 18 controls. The prevalence of tinnitus in patients with TMD varied from 3.7% to 70% (median 42.3%) whereas the prevalence in control groups without TMD varied between 1.7% and 26% (median 12%). The eight treatment studies indicated that treatment of TMD symptoms may have a beneficial effect on severity of tinnitus. However, only one treatment study included a control group, meaning that the overall level of evidence is low. The finding that tinnitus is more common in patients with TMD means that it can be regarded as a comorbidity to TMD. However, in view of the lack of evidence currently available, further well-designed and randomised studies with control groups are needed to investigate whether possible mechanisms common to tinnitus and TMD do exist and whether TMD treatment can be justified to try to alleviate tinnitus in patients with TMD and comorbidity of tinnitus.

Temporomandibular pain in adolescents with a history of preterm birth.

AIM: To evaluate the frequency of temporomandibular disorder (TMD) pain among adolescents with a history of preterm birth compared to a matched control group. METHODS: A group of 192 preterm-born adolescents was followed up at the age of 17-19 years and compared to matched controls. Self-report questionnaires included screening questions about TMD pain, chronic diseases, general health, depression, anxiety, anger, antisocial behaviour and self-concept. TMD pain was defined as answering "yes" to one or both of the following questions: "Do you have pain in the temple, face, temporomandibular joint or jaws once a week or more?" and "Do you have pain when you open your mouth wide or chew once a week or more often?" Data analysis was performed using chi-square test and logistic regression model with likelihood ratio test. RESULTS: A TMD pain frequency of 23% of preterm-born adolescents and 26% among the controls was found, with no significant differences between the groups. Neither were there differences regarding anxiety, depression, anger or self-confidence. Within the preterm group, adolescents with TMD pain registered tension and pain in the body, trouble sleeping, stomach pain and feelings of hopelessness about the future. The controls with TMD pain, more reported having a bad life, feeling like a failure and having bodily pain. Among tested background variables, only TMJ locking or intermittent locking once a week or more was found to explain TMD pain in adolescents. CONCLUSION: A high frequency of TMD pain was found in both groups, one possible explanation could be TMJ dysfunction.

Knowledge and competence in temporomandibular disorders among Swedish general dental practitioners and dental hygienists.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate knowledge and competence in temporomandibular disorders (TMD) among dentists and dental hygienists working in the public dental service (PDS) in Sweden. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study population comprised all general dentists (n = 110) and dental hygienists (n = 80) working in the PDS in two Swedish counties: Kronoberg (K) and Blekinge (B). The participants filled out a questionnaire comprised of 15 questions. RESULTS: The results of these questions are presented. The overall response rate for the general dentists was 87%, while the rate for the dental hygienists was 71%. Statistically significant differences between the general dentists in the two counties were found regarding the following: education in the field of TMD over the last 5 years (K: 37%, B: 73%), evaluation of occlusion when examining patients with suspected TMD ('always': K: 61%, B: 82%), and a desire for consultation of the OFP (orofacial pain)/TMD specialist by telephone (K: 71%, B: 44%). Regarding the dental hygienists, there was a statistically significant difference concerning the use of the treatment modality 'reassurance' (K: 41%, B: 7%). CONCLUSIONS: The majority of the dental care providers in both counties - irrespective of professional category - had a positive attitude towards patients with TMD. Knowledge and competence in the field are sparse and require postgraduate education. There is a great need of an OFP/TMD specialist for more complicated patients and a need to implement updated knowledge and competence in the PDS in these two counties.

Five years' follow-up of dental fear and anxiety, experience of dental care and oral health behaviour in Swedish preterm and full-term adolescents.

BACKGROUND: There is rising concern about how preterm birth affects long-term health later in life. The various effects that preterm birth have on developmental outcomes, cognitive profiles and medical health may also affect levels of cooperation in the dental care situation in addition to general oral health and other oral health-related habits. Oral health is an integral part of one's general health and well-being; however, less is known about how prematurity affects oral health and other related areas such as dental care, and including dental fear and anxiety (DFA) in individuals during adolescence and adulthood. This is considered of special interest to study, as preterm children during the preschool and school period were reported to have behavioural problems during dental treatments and less than favourable oral hygiene. METHODS: A questionnaire was used of self-report design and structured into behavioural aspects relating to dental treatment, oral health-related factors, and medical health. This questionnaire at 17-19 years of age was a follow-up from 12 to 14 years of age and considered a predictor for planning future dental care for this group of patients. The 145 participating adolescents were all preterm, born between 23 and 32 weeks of gestation and 140 full-term controls, born ≥37 weeks of gestation. RESULTS: Dental fear and anxiety, oral health behaviour, and intake of sweets and sugary drinks of 17-19-year old adolescents born preterm was comparable to that of the full-term control group. Medical health problems as well as the intake of sweets and sugary drinks increased from the time of early adolescence to late adolescence in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: Preterm as well as full-term adolescents between 17 and 19 years of age are satisfied with their dental care and display low prevalence of dental fear and anxiety (DFA). The findings in this study indicate that adolescents born very preterm and extremely preterm are well prepared for transition to dental care in adult life with expectations of being able to take responsibility for their oral health.

Masticatory function in patients with dentofacial deformities before and after orthognathic treatment-a prospective, longitudinal, and controlled study.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate the self-estimated masticatory ability and masticatory performance in patients with dentofacial deformities before and after orthognathic treatment; in comparison to an age- and gender-matched control group. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The masticatory ability and masticatory performance were evaluated in 121 consecutive patients (treatment group), referred for orthognathic treatment. Eighteen months after treatment, 98 patients (81%) completed a follow-up examination. Masticatory ability was assessed on a visual analog scale, while the masticatory performance was evaluated by a masticatory test using round silicon tablets. Signs and symptoms of temporomandibular disorders (TMD) were registered by a clinical examination and a questionnaire. The control group comprised 56 age- and gender-matched subjects who were examined at baseline. RESULTS: At the baseline examination, the treatment group had a significantly lower masticatory ability and performance compared with the control group. After treatment, the masticatory ability significantly improved in the treatment group and reached the same level as in the control group. The masticatory performance index increased significantly but was still lower than in the control group. Both the masticatory ability and masticatory performance were affected by the number of occlusal contacts during maximal biting pressure and by the self-estimated overall symptoms of TMD. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with dentofacial deformities, corrected by orthognathic treatment, have a significant positive treatment outcome in respect of masticatory ability and masticatory performance. Furthermore, the occlusion and symptoms of TMD have an impact on both masticatory ability and masticatory performance.

Self-perceived effects of occlusal appliance therapy on TMD patients: an eight-year follow-up.

There are few long-term follow-up studies of treatment of temporomandibular disorders (TMD).The aim of this questionnaire study was to evaluate eight-year outcomes of appliance therapy in patients suffering from arthralgia/osteoarthritis and/or myofascial pain. The subjects comprised 120 patients, originally randomly assigned to treatment with an occlusal or a control (palatal) appliance. Eight years later, a questionnaire was sent to 118 eligible patients: 90 (76%) responded. The outcome measures were intensity and frequency of pain, physical and emotional functioning, and overall improvement of pain and headache. Maximum pain intensity had decreased by > 30% in 54 patients (60%); frequency of pain had also decreased significantly. A majority, 57/90, reported improved physical function. Fifty-nine patients reported moderate to severe depression and 61 reported non-specific physical symptoms. Sixty-eight patients reported an overall improvement in TMD pain and 61 perceived overall improvement in severity of headaches. In the intervening years, 57 patients had undergone further treatment, most frequently in the form of another occlusal appliance. The majority of respondents reported improvement in TMD pain and headache. However, it is difficult to evaluate the long-term outcome of appliance therapy as more than 60% of the patients had additional treatments during the eight years.

Expectations and Experiences of Internet-Based Therapy for Adolescents with TMD Pain.

AIMS: To investigate expectations and experiences of internet-based therapy (IBT) in adolescents with temporomandibular disorder (TMD) pain. METHODS: Seven adolescents were strategically selected for this study. All patients had received IBT for their TMD pain in a previous randomized controlled trial. One-on-one interviews were conducted in a nonclinical setting. The interviews were semi-structured, following an interview guide with six domains. The recorded interviews were transcribed, and a qualitative inductive content analysis was then performed. RESULTS: Content analysis indicated that the expectations of the adolescents and their experiences of IBT as a treatment for TMD pain can be understood in light of three main categories: (1) To become better; (2) An ambivalent experience; and (3) A personal challenge. The adolescents expressed expectations of less TMD pain after treatment, but also of improvement in general well-being and everyday life. Although their experiences of IBT varied, adolescents described having mixed feelings about treatment and feeling that it was personally challenging. CONCLUSION: Gained understanding of expectations and experiences is a necessary basis for revising the IBT program to meet the demands of adolescents and to improve treatment adherence. Furthermore, the content of the three categories clarifies the values of adolescents, and this understanding can in turn contribute to the development of new patient-centered treatment programs.

Headache: short- and long-term effectiveness of a prefabricated appliance compared to a stabilization appliance.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the short- and long-term effectiveness of a prefabricated occlusal appliance with that of a stabilization appliance when treating headache in patients with myofascial pain. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Sixty-six patients, 94% of whom suffered concomitantly from headache, at two centres for Stomatognathic Physiology in Sweden and Finland were included in a randomized controlled trial. History questionnaires and clinical examination according to the Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders were used at baseline and at 10-week and 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Patients were randomly assigned to either a prefabricated (R) or a stabilization appliance (S) group. RESULTS: There were significant decreases in the frequency and intensity of headache in both groups at all follow-ups, without statistically significant differences between groups. At baseline, 23 patients in both groups reported recurrent-continuous headache and, at 12 months, seven in the R group and four in the S group. The mean intensity (numeric rating scale) of headache prior to treatment decreased significantly at 12 months from 5.3 to 2.1 in the R group and from 6.1 to 2.9 in the S group. At the 12-month follow-up, 56% of patients in the R group reported a 30% reduction in intensity of headache and 50% a 50% reduction. In the S group, corresponding values were 39% and 36%, respectively. Non-specific physical symptoms were significantly associated with frequency of headache at baseline and at 6 months, and with depression at 6 and 12 months. CONCLUSION: The effectiveness of the prefabricated appliance seems to be similar to that of the stabilization appliance in the treatment of headache in patients with myofascial pain in both the short and long term.

Do psychological factors and general health influence the short-term efficacy of resilient appliance therapy in patients with temporomandibular disorder pain?

OBJECTIVES: To study how sense of coherence (SOC), grade of depression and non-specific physical symptoms and general health influence the efficacy of intraoral appliance therapy in patients with temporomandibular disorder (TMD) pain. A second objective was to study the association between SOC, grade of depression, grade of non-specific physical symptoms and general health. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 73 TMD pain patients participated; 36 were treated with a resilient appliance and 37 with a non-occluding control appliance in a randomized controlled trial for a period of 10 weeks. All patients had at least one pain diagnosis according to the research diagnostic criteria for TMD, including both the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (Axis II) measuring grade of depression and non-specific physical symptoms, and general health (physical characteristics). Patients also filled in the 29-item SOC questionnaire. RESULTS: A low grade of SOC was found in eight of the patients in the treatment group and in 17 of the control group at baseline, with a statistically significant difference between the groups. Logistic regression analyses revealed that, after correcting for the background variables, the resilient appliance did not differ from the non-occluding control appliance in terms of treatment outcome. No statistically significant differences were found when correlating mean SOC with grade of depression, grade of non-specific physical symptoms and general health. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that none of the studied background variables (age, gender, SOC, depression, non-specific physical symptoms or general health) seemed to influence the short-term efficacy of intraoral appliances. No association was found between SOC and depression, non-specific physical symptoms or general health in TMD pain patients.

Temporomandibular disorder pain in adult Saudi Arabians referred for specialised dental treatment.

The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of Temporomandibular Disorders (TMD) pain in Saudi Arabians,aged 20-40, who were referred to the Specialist Dental Centre in Makkah. The material included 325 patients (135 males,190 females) who answered a history questionnaire. Patients reportingTMD pain in the last month were offered a clinical examination. History questionnaires and clinical examinations were done according to the Arabic version of the Research Diagnostic Criteria for TMD (RDC/TMD). Fifty-eight patients (18%) reported TMD pain; 46 were clinically examined. Mean age of clinically examined TMD pain patients was 30 +/- 7 years with a male-female ratio of 1:6 (P < 0.001). All TMD pain patients had a diagnosis of myofascial pain, and 65% had diagnoses of arthralgia or osteoarthritis. Headaches or migraines in the last 6 months and headaches in the last month were reported in high frequencies in the TMD pain group, 93% and 71% respectively, with differences (P < 0.001) between the TMD pain and non-TMD pain groups. Graded Chronic Pain Scale assessments classified 45% of the TMD pain patients in grade 1, 53% in grade II, 2% in grade III, and 0% in grade IV. Severe depression scores were found in 38% of the TMD pain patients and severe somatisation scores in 60% with differences (P < 0.001) between the TMD pain and non-TMD pain groups. In conclusion, the study found a frequency of TMD pain in this Saudi Arabian cohort of 18%. The TMD pain group presented high scores of depression and somatisation but low disability grades on the Graded Chronic Pain Scale.

Impact of Catastrophizing in Patients with Temporomandibular Disorders-A Systematic Review.

AIMS: To assess the prevalence of catastrophizing in patients with temporomandibular disorders (TMD) and the possible associations between catastrophizing and treatment outcome. METHODS: This review was registered in the Prospero database (CRD42018114233). Electronic searches were performed in PubMed, Scopus, and PsycINFO from the inception of each database up to October 26, 2018, and were combined with a hand search. Articles focusing on levels of catastrophizing and how catastrophizing affects pain levels and treatment outcomes for patients diagnosed with TMD were included, as well as studies reporting how treatment outcomes were affected by cognitive behavioral treatment as an addition to standard treatment for TMD. Reviews and case reports were excluded. Risk of bias was assessed with the Newcastle-Ottawa scale. RESULTS: The literature search identified 266 articles. After screening of abstracts, the full texts of 59 articles were assessed. Of these, 37 articles, including 4,789 patients with TMD and 6,617 controls, met the inclusion criteria. Higher levels of pain catastrophizing were reported in patients with TMD, with a large effect size (Hedges' g = 0.86) compared to pain-free controls. Furthermore, associations of higher levels of catastrophizing with higher symptom severity and with poorer treatment outcome were reported together with indications of positive effects from cognitive behavioral therapy. CONCLUSION: The results suggest an association between catastrophizing and TMD that may affect not only symptom severity but also treatment outcome. Assessing levels of pain catastrophizing might therefore be valuable in the assessment and management of patients with TMD.

Diagnostic accuracy of temporomandibular disorder pain tests: a multicenter study.

AIMS: To estimate the diagnostic accuracy of the Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (RDC/TMD) clinical examination and of the dynamic/static tests for the recognition of TMD pain. Since the diagnosis of TMD pain is especially complicated in persistent orofacial pain patients, the test outcomes in persistent TMD pain patients were contrasted to those in two control groups: a group of persistent dental pain patients and a group of pain-free subjects. METHODS: In 125 persistent TMD pain patients, 88 persistent dental pain patients, and 121 pain-free subjects, a blind and standardized clinical examination was performed. RESULTS: For the RDC/TMD, sensitivity (88%) was high and specificity was low (pain-free group: 71%; dental pain group: 45%). For the dynamic/static tests, sensitivity was 65% and specificities were 91% and 84%, respectively. Comparing the outcomes of the two examinations showed higher positive likelihood ratios for dynamic/static tests (P < .001), and lower negative likelihood ratios for the RDC/TMD examination (P < .01). CONCLUSION: For the confirmation of a suspicion of TMD pain, it is better to rely on positive dynamic/static tests. To confirm the absence of TMD pain, it is better to rely on a negative RDC/TMD examination.

Mandibular function, temporomandibular disorders, and headache in prematurely born children.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate mandibular function, signs, and symptoms of temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) and headache in prematurely born 8- to 10-year-old children, and to compare the findings with matched full-term born controls. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Seventy-three preterm children were selected from the Medical Birth Register--one group comprising 36 extremely preterm children born before the 29th gestational week, the other group 37 very preterm children born during gestational weeks 29 to 32. The preterm children were compared with a control group of 41 full-term children matched for gender, age, nationality, and living area. The subjective symptoms of TMD and headache were registered using a questionnaire. Mandibular function, signs, and symptoms of TMD and headache were registered. TMD diagnoses were set per Research Diagnostic Criteria for temporomandibular disorders (RDC/TMD). RESULTS: No significant differences between groups or gender were found for TMD diagnoses according to RDC/TMD or for headache. The preterm children had smaller mandibular movement capacity than the full-term control group, but when adjusting for weight, height, and head circumference mostly all group differences disappeared. CONCLUSIONS: Prematurely born children of 8 to 10 years of age did not differ from full-term born children when considering diagnoses according to RDC/TMD, signs, and symptoms of TMD or headache.

TMD in consecutive patients referred for orthognathic surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To answer the question whether temporomandibular disorders (TMD) were more common in a group of individuals referred for orthognathic surgery than in a control group. The null hypothesis was that neither the frequency of signs and symptoms of TMD or diagnosed TMD would differ between the patient group and a control group. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A sample of 121 consecutive patients referred for orthognathic surgery at the Department of Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, Malmö University Hospital, Sweden, was interviewed and examined regarding signs and symptoms of TMD and headaches. A control group was formed by 56 age- and gender-matched individuals attending the Department of Oral Diagnosis, Faculty of Odontology, Malmö University, Sweden, and Public Dental Health Clinic in Oxie, County of Skane, Sweden. TMD diagnoses were used according to Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (RDC/TMD). RESULTS: The patient group showed more myofascial pain without limited opening, disc displacement with reduction, and arthralgia according to RDC/TMD than the control group. The patient group also had more symptoms and signs of TMD in general. CONCLUSIONS: The null hypothesis was rejected because patients who were to be treated with orthognathic surgery had more signs and symptoms of TMD and higher frequency of diagnosed TMD compared with the matched control group.