Platelets immune response against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection.

Tuberculosis (TB) is the first cause of death by a single infectious agent. Previous reports have highlighted the presence of platelets within Tb granulomas, albeit the immune-associated platelet response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) has not been deeply studied. Our results showed that platelets are recruited into the granuloma in the late stages of tuberculosis. Furthermore, electron-microscopy studies showed that platelets can internalize Mtb and produce host defense peptides (HDPs), such as RNase 7, HBD2 and hPF-4 that bind to the internalized Mtb. Mtb-infected platelets exhibited higher transcription and secretion of IL-1ß and TNF-α, whereas IL-10 and IL-6 protein levels decreased. These results suggest that platelets participate in the immune response against Mtb through HDPs and cytokines production.

Methotrexate reduces keratinocyte proliferation, migration and induces apoptosis in HaCaT keratinocytes in vitro and reduces wound closure in Skh1 mice in vivo.

The aim of the present work was to evaluate MTX treatment (0.1, 1 and 10 µg mL-1) in vitro in order to characterize its effects on cell proliferation alterations in cell cycle of HaCaT keratinocytes and wound healing in a Skh1 mice treated with MTX (low doses 30 mg kg-1, high doses 200 mg kg-1 and repeated doses at 1.5 mg kg-1). We analyzed the cytotoxic effect of methotrexate by a resazurin assay. The effects in the proliferation, cell cycle and apoptosis of HaCaT cells were analyzed by flow cytometry. The effects of MTX on wound healing in vivo were also analyzed. A trend toward reduction in the resazurin assay was found (p > 0.05). Reduced proliferation was also identified in a clonogenic assay and a CFSE assay (p < 0.05) due to the MTX treatment. A reduction in the G2/M and S phases was observed accompanied by apoptosis induction with increased sub G0 phase and annexin V FITC staining. Effect of MTX was evidenced in vivo on the wound closure process after day 10 (p < 0.05) with alterations in tissue architecture and remodeling. There is a marked effect of MTX on wound healing in vivo in Skh1 mice with implications for long-term therapy and surgical interventions.

Circulating miR-146a, miR-34a and miR-375 in type 2 diabetes patients, pre-diabetic and normal-glycaemic individuals in relation to ß-cell function, insulin resistance and metabolic parameters.

The pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D) is associated with a progressive loss of pancreatic ß-cell mass. It is known that miR-146a, miR-34a, and miR-375 are involved in ß-cell functionality. In this work, we evaluated the levels of these miRNAs in normal-glycaemic individuals, pre-diabetic, and T2D patients in relation to ß-cell functionality, insulin resistance, and metabolic parameters. The relative expression of the miRNAs was evaluated in serum samples by real-time polymerase chain reaction. In a principal component analysis, we observed that T2D patients and pre-diabetic individuals were not associated with ß-cell functionality. However, in a correlation matrix analysis, we detected that miR-34a was related to miR-146a and insulin resistance. The relative expression of miR-375 was correlated with cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein levels. A decrease of ß-cell function in pre-diabetic individuals and T2D patients was observed. The insulin resistance was higher in pre-diabetic individuals and T2D patients. The relative expression of miR-146a in pre-diabetic individuals, T2D patients with insulin treatment, and T2D patients with nephropathy and diabetic foot was decreased. In addition, miR-34a was increased in T2D patients who were overweight and obese. The relative expression of miR-375 was increased in T2D patients with poor glycaemic control, while a decrease was seen in T2D patients with nephropathy and diabetic foot. Circulating miR-375, miR-34a, and miR-146a were not associated with ß-cell functionality, but their expression was differentially affected by glycaemia, obesity, insulin treatment, and the presence of nephropathy and diabetic foot.

Differences in Cytokine Production during Aging and Its Relationship with Antimicrobial Peptides Production.

Aging is a major health issue due to the increased susceptibility of elderly people to infectious, autoimmune, and cardiovascular diseases. Innate immunity is an important mechanism to avoid primary infections; therefore, decreasing of its activity may lead to development of infections. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are effector molecules of innate immunity that can eliminate microbial invaders. The role that cytokines play in the regulation of these innate immune mechanisms needs to be explored. Serum determinations of Th1, Th2, and Th17 cytokines were performed in order to evaluate their association with AMPs human beta-defensin (HBD)-2 and LL-37 in young adults, elder adults, and elder adults with recurrent infections. Our results showed differences in interleukin (IL)-10 and IL-6 among the different groups. Inverse correlations in serum cytokine levels and HBD-2 production were identified for IL-10, IL-2, IL-4, tumor necrosis factor-α, and IL-6. Also inverse correlations were identified for IL-10, IL-4, and cathelicidin (LL-37). Such results could impact the development of immunomodulators that promote AMP production to prevent and/or contain infectious diseases in this population.

Calcitriol prevents inflammatory gene expression in macrovascular endothelial cells.

BACKGROUND: Calcitriol (vitamin D) supplementation has been proposed for therapeutical use in vascular diseases due to its immunomodulatory activity, preventing inflammation and promoting angiogenesis. In the present study, we hypothesised whether calcitriol downregulates pro-inflammatory gene expression without affecting angiogenesis and anti-inflammatory gene expression in LPS-induced endothelial cells. METHOD: In order to evaluate the effect of calcitriol in suppressing inflammatory gene expression in the endothelium, endothelial cells were exposed to the physiological concentration of calcitriol followed by stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Gene expression of interleukin (IL)-1ß, Transforming Growth Factor (TGF)-ß, Human ß-defensin (HBD)-2, angiogenin (ANG) and cathelicidin (LL-37) were quantified by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: The results from six independent experiments conducted in duplicate, showed that calcitriol decreased IL-1ß (p < 0.01) and HBD-2 expression (p < 0.01) when compared to non-treated cells. However, calcitriol treatment had no effect on TGF-ß, ANG and LL-37 gene expression. CONCLUSION: Calcitriol prevents inflammatory gene expression, but does not affect expression of angiogenic genes in endothelial cells, which suggest the potential use of calcitriol to prevent endothelial activation through the downregulation of IL-1ß and HBD-2.

Vitamin D and L-Isoleucine Promote Antimicrobial Peptide hBD-2 Production in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells from Elderly Individuals.

Elderly individuals are susceptible to develop infectious diseases; promoting innate immunity to prevent infections is a key issue. Human ß-defensin-2 (hBD-2) is an antimicrobial peptide with antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties. L-isoleucine and vitamin D are important molecules that induce hBD-2. The Aim of this study was to determine the use L-isoleucine and Vitamin D to induce hBD-2 in cells from healthy elderly individuals and elderly individuals with recurrent infections. We explored three groups: young adults (n = 20) used as control group, elderly adults (n = 18) and elderly with recurrent infections (n = 11). PBMCs (peripheral blood mononuclear cells) were isolated from the different groups and then were treated with L-isoleucine or vitamin D3. hBD-2 concentration was assessed with a sandwich enzyme Immunosorbent assay by triplicate. Using the vehicle as a mock control. Our results showed that a percentage of the individuals responded to the treatments producing hBD-2 (p < 0.05). These results showed that both molecules induced hBD-2 in elderly individuals and can be potentially used as prophylactic therapy to decrease infection diseases rates in this vulnerable group.

LL-37 immunomodulatory activity during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in macrophages.

Tuberculosis is one of the most important infectious diseases worldwide. The susceptibility to this disease depends to a great extent on the innate immune response against mycobacteria. Host defense peptides (HDP) are one of the first barriers to counteract infection. Cathelicidin (LL-37) is an HDP that has many immunomodulatory effects besides its weak antimicrobial activity. Despite advances in the study of the innate immune response in tuberculosis, the immunological role of LL-37 during M. tuberculosis infection has not been clarified. Monocyte-derived macrophages were infected with M. tuberculosis strain H37Rv and then treated with 1, 5, or 15 µg/ml of exogenous LL-37 for 4, 8, and 24 h. Exogenous LL-37 decreased tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-17 (IL-17) while inducing anti-inflammatory IL-10 and transforming growth factor ß (TGF-ß) production. Interestingly, the decreased production of anti-inflammatory cytokines did not reduce antimycobacterial activity. These results are consistent with the concept that LL-37 can modulate the expression of cytokines during mycobacterial infection and this activity was independent of the P2X7 receptor. Thus, LL-37 modulates the response of macrophages during infection, controlling the expression of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines.

Expression kinetics of metalloproteinases and their tissue inhibitors in experimental murine pulmonary tuberculosis.

AIM: Explore the temporal expression of metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) during experimental tuberculosis induced by virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain H37Rv. METHODS: BALB/c mice were infected via endotracheal instillation with H37Rv. Groups of mice were euthanized at different time points during infection. RNA was isolated from the lungs, and the expression of MMP-3, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13 and TIMP-1-4 was determined by quantitative PCR. Immunohistochemical detection of MMP-3, MMP-9, and MMP-10 was done to determine the cell source. RESULTS: The infection with H37Rv-induced inflammation resulted in maximal up-regulation of MMP-3, 8, 9, 10, 12 and 13 at day 21 postinfection. Additionally, MMP-13 showed another expression peak during late disease at day 60. Airway epithelium and macrophages were the most common MMP-3 and MMP-9 immunopositive cells, while for MMP-10, macrophages and endothelial cells were the most common, particularly at days 14 and 21 in well-formed granulomas. During late disease, vacuolated macrophages in pneumonic areas and bronchial epithelium showed mild MMP immunostaining. CONCLUSIONS: MMP-3, 8, 9, 10, 12, and 13 are maximally expressed at the peak of granuloma formation in the mouse tuberculosis model, with no compensation in levels or timing of TIMP expression. This data opens the possibility of participation of these molecules in the granuloma process.

Tuberculin skin test and interferon-gamma release assay values are associated with antimicrobial peptides expression in polymorphonuclear cells during latent tuberculous infection.

It has been reported that patients with progressive tuberculosis (TB) express abundant amounts of the antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) cathelicidin (LL-37) and human neutrophil peptide-1 (HNP-1) in circulating cells, whereas latent TB infected donors showed no differences when compared with purified protein derivative (PPD) and QuantiFERON®-TB Gold (QFT)-healthy individuals. The aim of this study was to determine whether LL-37 and HNP-1 production correlates with higher tuberculin skin test (TST) and QFT values in TB household contacts. Twenty-six TB household contact individuals between 26-58 years old TST and QFT positive with at last two years of latent TB infection were recruited. AMPs production by polymorphonuclear cells was determined by flow cytometry and correlation between TST and QFT values was analysed. Our results showed that there is a positive correlation between levels of HNP-1 and LL-37 production with reactivity to TST and/or QFT levels. This preliminary study suggests the potential use of the expression levels of these peptides as biomarkers for progression in latent infected individuals.

Steroid hormone modulates the production of cathelicidin and human ß-defensins in lung epithelial cells and macrophages promoting Mycobacterium tuberculosis killing.

Several studies have documented the interaction between the immune and endocrine systems as an effective defense strategy against tuberculosis, involving the production of several molecules and immunological processes. In this study, we determined the effect of cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) on the production of antimicrobial peptides such as cathelicidin and human ß-defensin (HBD) -2, and HBD-3 and their effect on intracellular growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) in lung epithelial cells and macrophages. Our results showed that DHEA promotes the production of these antimicrobial peptides in infected cells, correlating with the decrease of Mtb bacilli loads. These results suggest the use of exogenous DHEA as an adjuvant for tuberculosis therapy.

The analysis on the human protein domain targets and host-like interacting motifs for the MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV/CoV-2 infers the molecular mimicry of coronavirus.

The MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 are highly pathogenic viruses that can cause severe pneumonic diseases in humans. Unfortunately, there is a non-available effective treatment to combat these viruses. Domain-motif interactions (DMIs) are an essential means by which viruses mimic and hijack the biological processes of host cells. To disentangle how viruses achieve this process can help to develop new rational therapies. Data mining was performed to obtain DMIs stored as regular expressions (regexp) in 3DID and ELM databases. The mined regexp information was mapped on the coronaviruses' proteomes. Most motifs on viral protein that could interact with human proteins are shared across the coronavirus species, indicating that molecular mimicry is a common strategy for coronavirus infection. Enrichment ontology analysis for protein domains showed a shared biological process and molecular function terms related to carbon source utilization and potassium channel regulation. Some of the mapped motifs were nested on B, and T cell epitopes, suggesting that it could be as an alternative way for reverse vaccinology. The information obtained in this study could be used for further theoretic and experimental explorations on coronavirus infection mechanism and development of medicines for treatment.

Nicotine promotes the intracellular growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in epithelial cells.

Several epidemiological studies have identified the cigarette smoke as a risk factor for the infection and development of tuberculosis. Nicotine is considered the main immunomodulatory molecule of the cigarette. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of nicotine in the growth of M. tuberculosis. Lung epithelial cells and macrophages were infected with M. tuberculosis and/or treated with nicotine. The results show that nicotine increased the growth of M. tuberculosis mainly in type II pneumocytes (T2P) but not in airway basal epithelial cells nor macrophages. Further, it was observed that nicotine decreased the production of ß-defensin-2, ß-defensin-3, and the cathelicidin LL-37 in all the evaluated cells at 24 and 72 h post-infection. The modulation of the expression of antimicrobial peptides appears to be partially mediated by the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α7 since the blockade of this receptor partially reverted the production of antimicrobial peptides. In summary, it was found that nicotine decreases the production of HBD-2, HBD-3, and LL-37 in T2P during the infection with M. tuberculosis promoting its intracellular growth.

Long-term exposure to particulate matter from air pollution alters airway ß-defensin-3 and -4 and cathelicidin host defense peptides production in a murine model.

Epidemiological studies have associated long-term exposure to environmental air pollution particulate matter (PM) with the development of diverse health problems. They include infectious respiratory diseases related to the deregulation of some innate immune response mechanisms, such as the host defense peptides' expression. Herein, we evaluated in BALB/c mice the effect of long-standing exposure (60 days) to urban-PM from the south of Mexico City, with aerodynamic diameters below 2.5 µm (PM2.5) and 10 µm (PM10) on the lung's gene expression and production of three host defense peptides (HDPs); murine beta-defensin-3, -4 (mBD-3, mBD-4) and cathelin-related antimicrobial peptide (CRAMP). We also evaluated mRNA levels of Il1b and Il10, two cytokines related to the expression of host defense peptides. Exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 differentially induced lung inflammation, being PM2.5, which caused higher inflammation levels, probably associated with a differential deposition on the airways, that facilitate the interaction with alveolar macrophages. Inflammation levels were associated with an early upregulation of the three HDPs assessed and an increment in Il1b mRNA levels. Interestingly, after 28 days of exposure, Il10 mRNA upregulation was observed and was associated with the downregulation of HDPs and Il1b mRNA levels. The upregulation of Il10 mRNA and suppression of HDPs might facilitate microbial colonization and the development of diseases associated with long-term exposure to PM.

Immunometabolic signatures predict risk of progression to sepsis in COVID-19.

Viral sepsis has been proposed as an accurate term to describe all multisystemic dysregulations and clinical findings in severe and critically ill COVID-19 patients. The adoption of this term may help the implementation of more accurate strategies of early diagnosis, prognosis, and in-hospital treatment. We accurately quantified 110 metabolites using targeted metabolomics, and 13 cytokines/chemokines in plasma samples of 121 COVID-19 patients with different levels of severity, and 37 non-COVID-19 individuals. Analyses revealed an integrated host-dependent dysregulation of inflammatory cytokines, neutrophil activation chemokines, glycolysis, mitochondrial metabolism, amino acid metabolism, polyamine synthesis, and lipid metabolism typical of sepsis processes distinctive of a mild disease. Dysregulated metabolites and cytokines/chemokines showed differential correlation patterns in mild and critically ill patients, indicating a crosstalk between metabolism and hyperinflammation. Using multivariate analysis, powerful models for diagnosis and prognosis of COVID-19 induced sepsis were generated, as well as for mortality prediction among septic patients. A metabolite panel made of kynurenine/tryptophan ratio, IL-6, LysoPC a C18:2, and phenylalanine discriminated non-COVID-19 from sepsis patients with an area under the curve (AUC (95%CI)) of 0.991 (0.986-0.995), with sensitivity of 0.978 (0.963-0.992) and specificity of 0.920 (0.890-0.949). The panel that included C10:2, IL-6, NLR, and C5 discriminated mild patients from sepsis patients with an AUC (95%CI) of 0.965 (0.952-0.977), with sensitivity of 0.993(0.984-1.000) and specificity of 0.851 (0.815-0.887). The panel with citric acid, LysoPC a C28:1, neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and kynurenine/tryptophan ratio discriminated severe patients from sepsis patients with an AUC (95%CI) of 0.829 (0.800-0.858), with sensitivity of 0.738 (0.695-0.781) and specificity of 0.781 (0.735-0.827). Septic patients who survived were different from those that did not survive with a model consisting of hippuric acid, along with the presence of Type II diabetes, with an AUC (95%CI) of 0.831 (0.788-0.874), with sensitivity of 0.765 (0.697-0.832) and specificity of 0.817 (0.770-0.865).

Metformin promotes Mycobacterium tuberculosis killing and increases the production of human ß-defensins in lung epithelial cells and macrophages.

Diabetes has been associated with an increased risk of developing tuberculosis. The reasons related to the increased susceptibility to develop TB in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) individuals, has not been completely elucidated. However, this susceptibility has been attributed to several factors including failures and misfunctioning of the immune system. In the present study, we aimed to determine the role of anti-hyperglycemic drugs such as glyburide, insulin, and metformin to promote the killing of mycobacteria through the regulation of innate immune molecules such as host defense peptides (HDP) in lung epithelial cells and macrophages. Our results showed that metformin reduces bacillary loads in macrophages and lung epithelial cells which correlates with higher production of ß-defensin-2, -3 and -4. Since ß-defensins are crucial molecules for controlling Mycobacteriumtuberculosis growth, the present results suggest that the use of metformin would be the first choice in the treatment for T2DM2, in patients within tuberculosis-endemic areas.

A mango (Mangifera indica L.) juice by-product reduces gastrointestinal and upper respiratory tract infection symptoms in children.

The study aimed to evaluate the effect of a mango juice by-product (JBP) on upper-respiratory and gastrointestinal tract infection symptoms in children (6-8 y) in a randomized, double-blind, parallel, case-control study. For two months, children drank either flavored water (control group) or a mango JBP-based beverage (0.04 g·ml-1; treatment group); such beverage provided 1.1 g, 278.6 mg and 7.8 mg of dietary fiber, extractable polyphenols (mono-to-hepta galloyl hexosides, mangiferin), and hydrolysable polyphenols (ellagic/gallic acid) per portion, respectively. Mango JBP reduced the incidence of gastrointestinal (flatulencies and abdominal inflammation; p ≤ 0.007) and upper-tract respiratory (crystalline mucus, itchy throat, runny nose, itchy nose, and sneezing; p ≤ 0.038) and such benefits were associated to increased serum levels of PAI-I, MIP-1a, and MIP-1b (p ≤ 0.04) and decreased levels of IgG, MIF, and osteopontin (p ≤ 0.01). We concluded that JBP-based beverage has immunomodulatory properties, useful to prevent or even treat common infectious diseases in school-age children.

Host Defense Peptide RNase 7 Is Down-regulated in the Skin of Diabetic Patients with or without Chronic Ulcers, and its Expression is Altered with Metformin.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) are one of the main complications in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2), previous studies have reported that DM2 patients have lower production of host defense peptides (HDP). AIM OF THE STUDY: To investigate the expression of RNase 7, cathelicidin, HBD-2, and psoriasin in biopsies obtained from DM2 patients with or without DFU. METHODS: Biopsies from DFU patients grade 3 according to Wagner's classification, from diabetic patients without ulcer and from healthy donors were obtained. qPCR, immunohistochemistry and cell line cultures were performed. To assess whether L-isoleucine, calcitriol, phenyl butyrate, metformin, glyburide or insulin induced RNase 7, keratinocytes were stimulated, and RNase 7 expression was evaluated. RESULTS: Our data showed that RNase 7 levels were decreased in both diabetic groups when were compared with skin from healthy donors. Since most of the DM2 patients are treated with drugs to reduce glycemia, we investigated whether glyburide, metformin or insulin were able to induce any change regarding RNase 7 production. Results showed that metformin reduces the expression of RNase 7 in in vitro treated keratinocytes, suggesting that the chronic use of metformin should be evaluated in DFU patients, whereas calcitriol, phenyl butyrate and L-isoleucine did not increase the RNase 7 production. CONCLUSIONS: Due RNase 7 has antimicrobial activity, its downregulation can make prone to DM2 patients to develop infections and impaired wound healing.

Bacillus coagulans GBI-30, 6068 decreases upper respiratory and gastrointestinal tract symptoms in healthy Mexican scholar-aged children by modulating immune-related proteins.

This randomized, double-blind, parallel and placebo-controlled study aimed to evaluate the effect of Bacillus coagulans GBI-30, 6086® probiotic (GanedenBC30®) against upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) and gastrointestinal tract infections (GITI) in eighty healthy school-aged children (6-8 years old). The participants received daily a sachet containing either GanedenBC30 (1 × 109 colony-forming units) or placebo (maltodextrin) for three months. GanedenBC30 significantly decreased the incidence of URTI symptoms including nasal congestion, bloody nasal mucus, itchy nose, and hoarseness. The duration of the URTI-associated symptoms of hoarseness, headache, red eyes, and fatigue was also decreased. GanedenBC30 supplementation also significantly reduced the incidence rate of flatulence. These beneficial effects were associated with the modulation of serum TNFα, CD163, G-CSF, ICAM-1, IL-6, IL-8, MCP-2, RAGE, uPAR, and PF4. Therefore, probiotic B. coagulans GBI-30, 6086 modulated immune-related proteins in healthy children, decreasing several URTI and GITI symptoms, thus, this functional ingredient may contribute to a healthier lifestyle.

Glycerophospholipid Metabolism Alterations in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Tuberculosis Comorbidity.

Type-2 Diabetes (T2D) is a predisposing cause for developing tuberculosis (TB) in low- and middle-income countries. TB-T2D comorbidity worsens clinical control and prognosis of the affected individuals. The underlying metabolic alterations for this infectious-metabolic disease are still largely unknown. Possible mediators of the increased susceptibility to TB in diabetic patients are lipids levels, which are altered in individuals with T2D. To evaluate the modulation of glycerophospholipids in patients with TB-T2D, an untargeted lipidomic approach was developed by means of ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) coupled to electrospray ionization/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ESI-QToF). In addition, tandem mass spectrometry was performed to determine the identity of the differentially expressed metabolites. We found that TB infected individuals with or without T2D share a common glycerophospholipid profile characterized by a decrease in phosphatidylcholines. A total of 14 glycerophospholipids were differentially deregulated in TB and TB-T2D patients and could potentially be considered biomarkers. It is necessary to further validate these identified lipids as biomarkers, focusing on the anticipate diagnosis for TB development in T2D predisposed individuals.

Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells Show Different Frequencies in Diabetics and Subjects with Arterial Hypertension.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) is strongly associated with other comorbidities such as obesity, atherosclerosis, and hypertension. Obesity is associated with sustained low-grade inflammatory response due to the production of proinflammatory cytokines. This inflammatory process promotes the differentiation of some myeloid cells, including myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). In this study, two groups of individuals were included: DM2 patients and non-DM2 individuals with similar characteristics. Immunolabeling of CD15+ CD14- and CD33+ HLA-DR-/low was performed from whole peripheral blood, and samples were analyzed by flow cytometry, and frequencies of MDSCs and the relationship of these with clinical variables, cytokine profile (measured by cytometric bead array), and anthropometric variables were analyzed. The frequency of CD33+ HLA-DR-/low MDSCs (that produce IL-10 and TGF-ß, according to an intracellular detection) is higher in patients with DM2 (P < 0.05), and there is a positive correlation between the frequency of CD15+ CD14- and CD33+ HLA-DR-/low MDSC phenotypes. DM2 patients have an increased concentration of serum IL-5 (P < 0.05). Also, a negative correlation between the frequency of CD15+ CD14- MDSCs and LDL cholesterol was found. Our group of DM2 patients have an increased frequency of mononuclear MDSC CD33+ HLA-DR-/low that produce TGF-ß and IL-10. These cytokines have been associated with immune modulation and reduced T cell responses. DM2 and non-DM2 subjects show a similar cytokine profile, but the DM2 patients have an increased concentration of IL-5.