Long-term Consequences of Criminal Justice System Intervention: The Impact of Young Adult Arrest on Midlife Health Behaviors.

While there is a growing literature on the relationship between incarceration and health, few studies have expanded the investigation of criminal justice system involvement and health to include the more common intervention of arrest. This study uses a quasi-experimental design to evaluate the long-term effect of arrest in young adulthood on health behaviors in midlife for African Americans. We use propensity score matching methods and gender-specific multivariate regression analyses to equate those who did and did not incur an arrest in young adulthood from a subsample (n = 683) of the Woodlawn cohort, an African American community cohort followed from childhood into midlife. The results suggest that, for men, having been arrested in young adulthood has a direct effect on smoking, daily drinking, and risky sexual behaviors into midlife while young adult arrest does not seem to impact midlife health risk behaviors for women. This study adds health risk behaviors to the growing list of detrimental outcomes, such as crime, drug use, education, and mental health that are related to criminal justice contact for African American men, in particular.

Young Adult Victimization and Midlife Consequences: Sensitization or Steeling Effects of Childhood Adversity?

The interrelationship between victimization, violence, and substance use/abuse has been well established, yet those who experience victimization do not necessarily respond with violence or substance use or escalate to experiencing substance abuse symptoms. Drawing on literature from both the syndemic research from medical anthropology and the resilience research from psychology, this study examines the interaction between early childhood adversity and young adult violent victimization on later substance use/abuse and violent offending to provide insight into conditional effects. Data are derived from the Woodlawn Study, an African American cohort of men and women from a socioeconomically heterogeneous community in the South Side of Chicago, who were followed from first grade through age 42. Results indicate that those with lower levels of childhood adversity are more likely to suffer the negative consequences of violent victimization than those with higher childhood adversity, providing support for a "steeling" effect.

Long-term consequences of adolescent cannabis use: Examining intermediary processes.

BACKGROUND: In the United States, perceptions of marijuana's acceptability are at an all-time high, risk perceptions among youth are low, and rates are rising among Black youth. Thus, it is imperative to increase the understanding of long-term effects of adolescent marijuana use and ways to mitigate adverse consequences. OBJECTIVES: To identify the midlife consequences of heavy adolescent marijuana use and the mechanisms driving effects among a Black, urban population. METHODS: This study analyzed the propensity score-matched prospective data from the Woodlawn Study, a community cohort study of urban Black youth followed from ages 6-42. After matching the 165 adolescents who used marijuana heavily to 165 non-heavy/nonusers on background confounders to reduce selection effects (64.5% male), we tested the association of heavy marijuana use by age 16 with social, economic, and physical and psychological health outcomes in midlife and the ability of adult drug trajectories (marijuana, cocaine, and heroin use from ages 17-42) and school dropout to mediate effects. RESULTS: Heavy adolescent marijuana use was associated with an increased risk of being poor and of being unmarried in midlife. Marijuana use also predicted lower income and greater anxious mood in midlife. Both adult drug use trajectories and school dropout significantly mediated socioeconomic effects but not marital or anxious mood outcomes. CONCLUSION: Heavy adolescent marijuana use seems to set Black, urban youth on a long-term trajectory of disadvantage that persists into midlife. It is critical to interrupt this long-term disadvantage through the prevention of heavy adolescent marijuana use, long-term marijuana and other drug use, and school dropout.

Effect of Adolescent Cigarette Smoking on Adulthood Substance Use and Abuse: The Mediating Role of Educational Attainment.

BACKGROUND: Even though the association between cigarette smoking and later substance use has been shown, there is still no compelling evidence that demonstrates the long-term effects in a high drug using community in African Americans. Few studies have examined the mediating mechanisms of the effect of adolescent cigarette smoking on the drug progression pathway. OBJECTIVES: We examined the long-term influence of adolescent smoking on later illegal drug use in a cohort of urban African Americans, and the mediating role of educational attainment in the drug progression pathway. METHODS: The study used a longitudinal dataset from the Woodlawn Project that followed 1,242 African Americans from 1966-1967 (at age 6-7) through 2002-2003 (at age 42-43). We used the propensity score matching method to find a regular and a nonregular adolescent smoking group that had similar childhood characteristics; we used the matched sample to assess the association between adolescent smoking and drug progression, and the mediating role of educational attainment. RESULTS: Adolescent regular smokers showed significantly higher odds of using marijuana, cocaine, and heroin, having alcohol abuse problems and any drug dependence, and abuse problems in adulthood. We found that educational attainment mediated most of the drug progression pathway, including cigarette smoking, marijuana, cocaine and heroin use, and drug dependence or abuse problems in adulthood, but not alcohol abuse. CONCLUSIONS: More focus needs to be put on high school dropout and development of interventions in community settings for African Americans to alter the pathway for drug progression for adolescents who use cigarettes regularly.

Examining the Consequences of the "Prevalent Life Events" of Arrest and Incarceration among an Urban African-American Cohort.

The life course perspective has traditionally examined prevalent adult life events, such as marriage and employment, and their potential to redirect offending trajectories. However, for African Americans, the life events of arrest and incarceration are becoming equally prevalent in young adulthood. Therefore, it is critical to understand how these "standard" criminal justice practices, which are designed to deter as well as punish, affect deviance among this population. This study evaluates the long-term consequences of criminal justice intervention on substance use and offending into midlife among an African American community cohort using propensity score matching and multivariate regression analyses. The results largely point to a criminogenic effect of criminal justice intervention on midlife deviance with a particularly strong effect of young adult arrest on rates of violent and property arrest counts into midlife. The theoretical and policy implications of the findings are discussed.

Early life conditions of overall and cause-specific mortality among inner-city African Americans.

OBJECTIVES: We examined how early life conditions influence midlife overall and cause-specific mortality in a community cohort of disadvantaged African Americans. METHODS: Using a prospective design, we assessed first-grade children and their teachers and families when children were 6 years old, with follow-up at ages 16, 32, and 42 years. We obtained information on death from family members, neighbors, and the National Death Index (NDI). We conducted a survival analysis and competing risk analysis to examine early life predictors of mortality. RESULTS: Of 1242 participants, 87 (7%) had died by 2004. In multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression, males who lived in foster care and females with lower math grades in first grade were more likely to die by age 42 years. In multivariate competing risks analysis, hospitalization by the time of first grade was related to mortality from acute and chronic illness. Male gender, being in foster care, and aggressive behavior in first grade were related to mortality from drug use, violence, or suicide. CONCLUSIONS: Early classroom, environmental, and family-level interventions are potentially beneficial in reducing later overall and cause-specific mortality.

Long-term effects of adolescent smoking on depression and socioeconomic status in adulthood in an urban African American cohort.

Despite known adverse causal effects of cigarette smoking on mental health, findings for the effects of adolescent cigarette smoking on later depression and socioeconomic status remain inconclusive. Previous studies have had shorter follow-up periods and did not have a representative portion of the African American population. Using an analytical method that matches adolescent smokers with nonsmokers on childhood and background variables, this study aims to provide evidence on the effects of adolescent regular smoking on adult depression and socioeconomic status. Our longitudinal study is from the Woodlawn Study that followed 1,242 African Americans in Chicago from 1966-1967 (at age 6-7) through 2002-2003 (at age 42-43). We used a propensity score matching method to find a regular and a non-regular adolescent smoking group with similar childhood socioeconomic and family background and first grade academic and behavioral performance. We compared the matched samples to assess the longitudinal effects of adolescent smoking on adult outcomes. Comparing the matched 199 adolescent regular smokers and 199 non-regular smokers, we found statistical support for the effects of adolescent cigarette smoking on later educational attainment (OR, 2.13; 95 % CI, 1.34, 3.39) and long-term unemployment (OR, 1.74; 95 % CI, 1.11, 2.75), but did not find support for the effects on adulthood major depressive disorders. With a community population of urban African Americans followed for 40 years, our study contributes to the understanding of the relationships between adolescent smoking and later educational attainment and employment.

Do the adult criminal careers of African Americans fit the "facts"?

PURPOSE: A major gap in the criminal career research is our understanding of offending among African Americans, especially beyond early adulthood. In light of this gap, this study describes the criminal career patterns of a cohort of African American males and females. METHODS: This paper uses official criminal history data spanning ages 17 to 52 from the Woodlawn Study, a community cohort of 1,242 urban African American males and females. We use basic descriptive statistics as well as group-based modeling to provide a detailed description of the various dimensions of their adult criminal careers. RESULTS: We find cumulative prevalence rates similar to those for African Americans from national probability sample estimates, yet participation in offending extends farther into midlife than expected with a substantial proportion of the cohort still engaged in offending into their 30s. CONCLUSIONS: The descriptive analyses contribute to the larger body of knowledge regarding the relationship between age and crime and the unfolding of the criminal career for African American males and females. The applicability of existing life course and developmental theories is discussed in light of the findings.

Early life predictors of adult depression in a community cohort of urban African Americans.

Depression among African Americans residing in urban communities is a complex, major public health problem; however, few studies identify early life risk factors for depression among urban African American men and women. To better inform prevention programming, this study uses data from the Woodlawn Study, a well-defined community cohort of urban African Americans followed from age 6 to 42 years, to determine depression prevalence through midlife and identify childhood and adolescent risk factors for adult depression separately by gender. Results indicate that lifetime depression rates do not differ significantly by gender (16.2 % of men, 18.8 % of women) in contrast to findings of a higher prevalence for women in national studies. Furthermore, rates of depression in this urban African American population are higher than those found in national samples of African Americans and more comparable to the higher rates found nationally among Whites. Regarding early predictors, for both men and women, family conflict in adolescence is a risk factor for adult depression in multivariate regression models. For women, vulnerability to depression has roots in early life, specifically, low maternal aspirations for school attainment. Females displaying more aggressive and delinquent behavior and those growing up in a female-headed household and a household with low maternal education have elevated rates of depression. Males growing up in persistent poverty, those engaging in greater delinquent behavior, and those with low parental supervision in adolescence also have elevated rates of depression. Effective prevention programming for urban African Americans must consider both individual characteristics and the family dynamic.

Marriage and Offending among a Cohort of Disadvantaged African Americans.

OBJECTIVES: Drawing on Sampson and Laub's age-graded theory of informal social control, this research tests the generalizability of the marriage effect on desistance from crime. Specifically, do urban African American men and women living in the United States benefit from marriage similarly to Whites? METHODS: The authors use hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to analyze the relationship between marriage and official arrest counts among African American male and female first graders from Woodlawn, an inner-city community in Chicago, first assessed in 1966 and followed up at three time points (ages 16, 32, and 42). RESULTS: The authors find strong evidence of a marriage effect for the males across crime type, with a reduction in offending between 21 percent and 36 percent when in a state of marriage. The findings for females were less consistent across crime type, a 10 percent reduction in the odds of a property arrest and a 9 percent increase in the odds of a drug arrest when in a state of marriage. CONCLUSIONS: Their findings provide evidence in favor of the generality of Sampson and Laub's theory, at least for males. However, the authors were not able to evaluate the mechanisms of desistance and identify this as an area of future research.

A prospective study of childhood and adolescent antecedents of homelessness among a community population of African Americans.

Much is known about contemporaneous correlates of homelessness from studies of homeless individuals. However, few studies have prospectively examined early antecedents and prevalence of homelessness in community populations. We use data from a 35-year study of a community population of African Americans to examine relationships between homelessness and prior structural, family, school, and behavioral influences. Nearly 22% of males and 16% of females reported homelessness between ages 15 and 42, providing a rare estimate within an African American urban community population. In bivariate analyses, lower school bonds, depressed mood, violent behavior, and running away in adolescence are predictive for both males and females. Teen parenting and angry mood are unique influences for females, while for males, poor first grade classroom conduct and adolescent substance use are unique risks. In multivariate analyses, poor classroom conduct and weaker school bonds predict homelessness among males, while teen parenting does so for females. Running away before age 15 is strongly predictive of later homelessness for both males and females. These results reveal the relative influence of multiple, interrelated early risks on homelessness and confirm our hypothesis that factors linked to other poor outcomes also relate to homelessness, underscoring another benefit to early prevention efforts.

Marriage Trajectories and Health Risk Behaviors Throughout Adulthood Among Urban African Americans.

Although previous studies have identified a protective effect of marriage on risky health behaviors, gaps remain in our understanding of how marriage improves health, particularly among African Americans. This study uses longitudinal data to take selection into account and examines whether marital trajectories that incorporate timing, stability, and duration of marriage affect health risk behaviors among a community cohort of urban African Americans followed for 35 years (N = 1,049). For both men and women, we find six marital trajectories. Men and women in consistently married trajectories are less likely to smoke, drink heavily (women only), and use illegal drugs than those in unmarried or previously married trajectories. Late marrying men do not fare worse in midlife than men in earlier marrying trajectories, but late marrying women show increased risk of midlife drug use. Results suggest policies supporting marriage may have an impact on health but only if stable unions are achieved.

Welfare receipt trajectories of African-American women followed for 30 years.

Although there has been much discussion about the persistence of poverty and welfare receipt among child-rearing women in the US, little is known about long-term patterns of poverty and welfare receipt or what differentiates those who remain on welfare from those who do not. Furthermore, are there distinctions between child-rearing women who are poor but not on welfare from those who do receive welfare? This study examined trajectories of welfare receipt and poverty among African-American women (n = 680) followed from 1966 to 1997. A semiparametric group-based approach revealed four trajectories of welfare receipt: no welfare (64.2%), early leavers (12.7%), late leavers (10.1%), and persistent welfare recipients (10.1%). The "no welfare" group was further divided into a poverty group and a not poverty group to distinguish predictors of welfare from predictors of poverty. Multivariate analyses revealed differences in predictors of trajectory groups in terms of education, physical and psychological health, and social integration. In addition, earlier chronic illness and social integration were important predictors to differentiate between long-term users (i.e., late leavers, persistent recipients) and short-term users (i.e., early leavers). Trajectories did not differ in teenage motherhood, substance use, or family history of welfare receipt. Implications for public policy are discussed.

What's drugs got to do with it? Examining the relationship between drug onset and duration with criminal outcomes in an African American cohort.

BACKGROUND: The association of drug use onset and duration with criminal careers has rarely been studied over the life course among African Americans, who are disproportionately impacted by the criminal justice system. METHODS: This study uses data from a community cohort of urban African Americans, first assessed at age 6 (n = 1242) and followed into midlife. Data come from both self-reports (n = 1053 in adulthood) and official crime records (n = 1217). Regression analyses among those who used marijuana, cocaine, and/or heroin and had complete arrest data (n = 614) assess the association between adolescent vs. adult initiation, short vs. long duration of use, and their interaction with the outcomes of arrest, incarceration, and criminal career length, as well as meeting criteria for a drug use disorder. RESULTS: Findings show that onset and duration are highly related, but when independent effects of duration and onset are assessed, only duration is a statistically significant predictor of all four crime outcomes, as well as a predictor of meeting criteria for a drug use disorder in adjusted regression models. Associations of duration with arrests held for all crime types (i.e., drug, property, violence). Adolescent vs. adult drug onset only predicted meeting lifetime criteria for a drug use disorder. The interaction of onset and duration was not statistically significant in any models. No appreciable differences were observed in gender specific models. DISCUSSION: Findings suggest that shortening drug use duration may have a greater impact on reducing the association of drug use with crime for African Americans than delaying onset.

Pathways to adult marijuana and cocaine use: a prospective study of African Americans from age 6 to 42.

This study examines pathways to adult marijuana and cocaine use in a cohort of African Americans from Woodlawn, an inner city community in Chicago. Assessments were conducted in first grade (age 6), adolescence (age 16), early adulthood (age 32), and in mid-adulthood (age 42). The "social adaptation life course "framework guided the focus on social adaptation, social bonds, and economic resources as predictors of adult drug use. Results indicate that more frequent substance use in adolescence and lower-income and less-frequent church attendance in early adulthood increase the risk of mid-life drug use. Shyness in first grade related inversely to later cocaine use and marijuana use (marginally significant). Indirect pathways to drug use also were identified. Gender differences were not significant. The findings show continuities in social maladaptation over time and the importance of social integration and economic resources in the early adult years.

Explaining continuity in substance use: The role of criminal justice system involvement over the life course of an urban African American prospective cohort.

BACKGROUND: African Americans are disproportionately burdened by substance use consequences and criminal justice system involvement, yet their interrelationship over the life course is not well understood. This study aimed to assess how substance use, crime, and justice system involvement may influence one another from adolescence to midlife. METHODS: Data come from a community cohort of urban African Americans first assessed in childhood and followed up into midlife (n = 1242, 606 males, 636 females). We draw on interview data and local, state, and federal criminal records. Participants were assessed at ages 6, 16, 32, and 42, with additional record retrieval at age 52. Utilizing structural equation modeling, we estimate pathways between substance use, criminal behavior, and arrests over time by gender. RESULTS: For males, significant paths were found between childhood behavioral problems and adolescent substance use, delinquency, and police interactions. For females, a significant path was found between childhood behavioral problems and only adolescent delinquency. We observed continuity between substance use and between arrest constructs from adolescence through midlife for men only. Direct paths were found between substance use and later arrests for both males and females. Paths were also observed between arrests and later substance use for both genders. CONCLUSIONS: Findings of reciprocal relationships highlight the critical need to break the cycle of substance use and crime and point to specific times in the life course when intervention is necessary. Findings introduce the potential role of the criminal justice system as a key intervention agent in redirecting substance use careers.

Investigating the long-term influence of adolescent delinquency on drug use initiation.

Prior research has found a positive relationship between delinquency and early onset of drug use. However, little is known about the influence of delinquency on drug initiation through mid-adulthood. This paper investigates the long-term relationship between serious adolescent delinquency and the onset of marijuana and cocaine use among an epidemiologically defined community sample of African American males and females followed from first grade through age 42. Using propensity score methods we match individuals on several etiological variables that may explain both delinquency and drug use in an attempt to examine the extent to which there may be a causal link between delinquency and drug use initiation. Through a comparison of survival curves on the unmatched and matched samples of serious delinquents and non-serious delinquents, we find that serious adolescent delinquency has at least some causal influence on drug use initiation that extends into mid-life. We discuss how these results can inform future research and delinquency and drug prevention and intervention initiatives.

The impact of early school behavior and educational achievement on adult drug use disorders: a prospective study.

Few longitudinal studies have examined the effects of education on drug use disorders among community populations of African Americans. This study explores the impact of multiple early education indicators on later problem drug use in an African American population followed for more than 35 years. The initial cohort comprised all 1st graders (N=1242, 51% female) living in the Woodlawn community of Chicago in 1966. Follow-up assessments were conducted in adolescence (1975-76), early adulthood (1992-93), and mid adulthood (2002-03). One or both adult interviews were completed by 1053 individuals providing information for identifying lifetime drug use disorders. Logistic regression with multiple imputation revealed several important relationships between early education indicators and DSM-III-R/DSM-IV drug use disorders. Specifically, the risk for adult problem drug use was related to: underachievement in 1st grade; low 7th and 8th grade standardized math scores; both suspension from and skipping school in adolescence; not having a high school diploma (compared to having a college degree), and having a diploma or GED (compared to having a college degree). Also, 1st graders characterized as shy by their teachers were less likely to develop problem drug use in adulthood. Results indicate potential opportunities for targeted intervention at multiple life stages.

The association of self-reported neighborhood disorganization and social capital with adolescent alcohol and drug use, dependence, and access to treatment.

AIMS: This research examines adolescent perceptions of neighborhood disorganization and social capital to determine if they are associated with adolescent alcohol or drug (AOD) use, AOD dependence, and access to AOD treatment. DESIGN: This is a secondary analysis of data from the 1999 and 2000 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). The NSDUH is a cross-sectional survey of a random sample of the non-institutionalized United States population and is conducted in respondents' homes. PARTICIPANTS: Youth between the ages of 12 and 17, yielding a sample size of 38,115 respondents. MEASUREMENTS: Neighborhood disorganization was self-reported by youth in response to eight items; 10 items measured social capital. AOD use was also self-reported. AOD dependence was assessed by a series of questions regarding symptoms and impairment that is consistent with the criteria specified in the DSM-IV. RESULTS: A little more than half of the youth reported never using alcohol or drugs (54.3%), 41.1% reported lifetime AOD use, and 4.6% were AOD dependent. Two percent reported receiving AOD treatment. Medium and high levels of social capital were negatively associated with AOD use and dependence. Social capital was unrelated to access to AOD treatment. Neighborhood disorganization was positively associated with AOD use, dependence, and access to treatment. CONCLUSIONS: After controlling for individual- and family-level characteristics, neighborhood disorganization and social capital were associated with AOD use and dependence. The findings suggest that subjective measures of social context may be an important component of the complex biopsychosocial model of adolescent AOD addiction and treatment utilization.

Effects of poverty and family stress over three decades on the functional status of older African American women.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to investigate the cumulative effects of poverty and family stressors to the later life functional status of African American women. METHODS: We used longitudinal data covering a 30-year period for a cohort of 553 African American women with common life experiences. Interviews were conducted with these women as young mothers, as mothers of adolescents, and in early old age (two thirds aged 60+). We classified women as high, usual, or low functioning by using physical and mental health indicators. We examined both timing and duration of poverty and family stressors. RESULTS: Initially these women were largely healthy, but health declines were steeper and occurred earlier for those who were low functioning in later life. Persistent poverty was detrimental to functioning at older ages, as was persistent family stress. Women who left poverty early did not differ in later life functioning from women who were never poor. DISCUSSION: Despite similar earlier life circumstances and health, there was substantial heterogeneity in functioning in early old age. Long-term poverty and family stress were strongly associated with being low functioning. Early poverty and transient family problems did not have lasting health effects, underscoring the plasticity of human development and the importance of interventions that can alter life course trajectories.