Accelerated increase in plant species richness on mountain summits is linked to warming.

Globally accelerating trends in societal development and human environmental impacts since the mid-twentieth century 1-7 are known as the Great Acceleration and have been discussed as a key indicator of the onset of the Anthropocene epoch 6 . While reports on ecological responses (for example, changes in species range or local extinctions) to the Great Acceleration are multiplying 8, 9 , it is unknown whether such biotic responses are undergoing a similar acceleration over time. This knowledge gap stems from the limited availability of time series data on biodiversity changes across large temporal and geographical extents. Here we use a dataset of repeated plant surveys from 302 mountain summits across Europe, spanning 145 years of observation, to assess the temporal trajectory of mountain biodiversity changes as a globally coherent imprint of the Anthropocene. We find a continent-wide acceleration in the rate of increase in plant species richness, with five times as much species enrichment between 2007 and 2016 as fifty years ago, between 1957 and 1966. This acceleration is strikingly synchronized with accelerated global warming and is not linked to alternative global change drivers. The accelerating increases in species richness on mountain summits across this broad spatial extent demonstrate that acceleration in climate-induced biotic change is occurring even in remote places on Earth, with potentially far-ranging consequences not only for biodiversity, but also for ecosystem functioning and services.

Directional turnover towards larger-ranged plants over time and across habitats.

Species turnover is ubiquitous. However, it remains unknown whether certain types of species are consistently gained or lost across different habitats. Here, we analysed the trajectories of 1827 plant species over time intervals of up to 78 years at 141 sites across mountain summits, forests, and lowland grasslands in Europe. We found, albeit with relatively small effect sizes, displacements of smaller- by larger-ranged species across habitats. Communities shifted in parallel towards more nutrient-demanding species, with species from nutrient-rich habitats having larger ranges. Because these species are typically strong competitors, declines of smaller-ranged species could reflect not only abiotic drivers of global change, but also biotic pressure from increased competition. The ubiquitous component of turnover based on species range size we found here may partially reconcile findings of no net loss in local diversity with global species loss, and link community-scale turnover to macroecological processes such as biotic homogenisation.

Recruitment Traits Could Influence Species' Geographical Range: A Case Study in the Genus Saxifraga L.

The reasons why some species occur widespread, while related species have restricted geographical ranges have been attributed to habitat specialization or ecological niche breadth. For species in the genus Saxifraga, habitat specialization alone cannot explain the distributional differences observed. We hypothesize that recruitment traits (i.e., germination, emergence, and survival) may account for differences in geographical ranges and that early life stages correlate to survival. We studied recruitment responses in 13 widespread and 12 narrow-ranged Saxifraga species in the laboratory and common garden experiments using seeds collected from 79 populations in the European Alps. We found that in the laboratory cold temperature led to higher germination percentages compared with warm temperature for both distribution groups. This represents an exception to the general assumption that alpine species require warm cues for germination. In warm laboratory temperatures, widespread species germinated better than narrow-ranged species, indicating a greater tolerance of warm temperatures for the former. Subsequent to germination, recruitment traits between the two distribution groups were lower or null in the common garden, suggesting that the impact of recruitment on species' geographical ranges occurs at the earliest life stage. Mean time to emergence of narrow-ranged species showed lower variability than that of widespread species. Consistently, intraspecific variation of mean annual temperatures between seed collection sites was lower for narrow-ranged species, indicating a close relationship between home sites and emergence time. Emergence percentage was a strong predictor of survival only for widespread species, underlining that seed and seedling functional traits differ between distribution groups, which require further research. Our results support the view that early life stages are critical to population dynamics and thus can influence species' geographical ranges. The wider responses to climatic conditions in widespread species may have facilitated their spread across the Alps. Our results also suggest that all Saxifraga species face a considerable threat from climate warming due to their overall cold-adapted recruitment niche.

Seed dormancy in alpine species.

In alpine species the classification of the various mechanisms underlying seed dormancy has been rather questionable and controversial. Thus, we investigated 28 alpine species to evaluate the prevailing types of dormancy. Embryo type and water impermeability of seed coats gave an indication of the potential seed dormancy class. To ascertain the actual dormancy class and level, we performed germination experiments comparing the behavior of seeds without storage, after cold-dry storage, after cold-wet storage, and scarification. We also tested the light requirement for germination in some species. Germination behavior was characterized using the final germination percentage and the mean germination time. Considering the effects of the pretreatments, a refined classification of the prevailing dormancy types was constructed based on the results of our pretreatments. Only two out of the 28 species that we evaluated had predominantly non-dormant seeds. Physiological dormancy was prevalent in 20 species, with deep physiological dormancy being the most abundant, followed by non-deep and intermediate physiological dormancy. Seeds of four species with underdeveloped embryos were assigned to the morphophysiologial dormancy class. An impermeable seed coat was identified in two species, with no additional physiological germination block. We defined these species as having physical dormancy. Light promoted the germination of seeds without storage in all but one species with physiological dormancy. In species with physical dormancy, light responses were of minor importance. We discuss our new classification in the context of former germination studies and draw implications for the timing of germination in the field.

Population dynamics along a primary succession gradient: do alpine species fit into demographic succession theory?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Understanding processes and mechanisms governing changes in plant species along primary successions has been of major importance in ecology. However, to date hardly any studies have focused on the complete life cycle of species along a successional gradient, comparing pioneer, early and late-successional species. In this study it is hypothesized that pioneer species should initially have a population growth rate, lambda, greater than one with high fecundity rates, and declining growth rates when they are replaced by late-successional species. Populations of late-successional species should also start, at the mid-successional stage (when pioneer species are declining), with growth rates greater than one and arrive at rates equal to one at the late successional stage, mainly due to higher survival rates that allow these species to persist for a long time. METHODS: The demography of pioneer- (Saxifraga aizoides), early (Artemisia genipi) and late-successional species (Anthyllis vulneraria ssp. alpicola) was investigated together with that of a ubiquitous species (Poa alpina) along the Rotmoos glacier foreland (2300-2400 m a.s.l., Central Alps, Austria) over 3 years. A matrix modelling approach was used to compare the main demographic parameters. Elasticity values were plotted in a demographic triangle using fecundity, individual growth and survival as vital rates contributing to the population growth rates. KEY RESULTS: The results largely confirmed the predictions for population growth rates during succession. However, high survival rates of larger adults characterized all species, regardless of where they were growing along the succession. At the pioneer site, high mortality rates of seedlings, plantlets and young individuals were recorded. Fecundity was found to be of minor relevance everywhere, but it was nevertheless sufficient to increase or maintain the population sizes. CONCLUSIONS: Demographically, all the species over all sites behaved like late-successional or climax species in secondary successions, mainly relying on survival of adult individuals. Survival serves as a buffer against temporal variation right from the beginning of the primary succession, indicating a major difference between primary and secondary succession.

Heat tolerance of early developmental stages of glacier foreland species in the growth chamber and in the field.

In glacier forelands, seeds readily germinate, however, a high proportion of seedlings die shortly after their appearance. We hypothesized that besides drought, frost and missing safe sites, heat on the ground surface could be one of the major threats for seedlings. The heat strain in different ground strata was assessed from 2007 to 2010. The heat tolerance (LT50) of eleven alpine species from different successional stages was tested considering imbibed (G1) and germinated seeds (G2) as well as seedlings (G3). Additionally, the heat hardening capacity of seedlings was determined in the field. Across all species, LT50 decreased significantly by 9 K from G1 (55 °C) to G3 (46 °C), similarly in all species of the successional stages. Field-grown seedlings had mostly an increased LT50 (2K). Intraspecifically, LT50 of seedlings varied between 40.6 and 52.5 °C. Along the chronosequence, LT50 in G1 was similar, but was higher in G2 and G3 of early successional species. The highest temperatures occurred at 0-0.5 cm in air (mean/absolute maximum: 42.6/54.1 °C) posing a significant heat injury risk for seedlings when under water shortage transpirational cooling is prevented. Below small stones (0-0.5 cm), maxima were 4 K lower, indicating heat safer microsites. Maxima >30 °C occurred at 32.3, >40 °C at 6.2 %. Interannually, 2010 was the hottest year with heat exceeding LT50 at all microsites (0-0.5 cm). Temperature maxima on sandy surfaces were lower than on microsites with gravel (diameter <5-10 mm). The hot summer of 2010 may be a small foretaste of in future more severe and frequent heat waves. Ground surface temperature maxima at the pioneer stage are already now critical for heat survival and may partly explain the high seedling mortality recognized on recently deglaciated terrain.

Variable temperature effects of Open Top Chambers at polar and alpine sites explained by irradiance and snow depth.

Environmental manipulation studies are integral to determining biological consequences of climate warming. Open Top Chambers (OTCs) have been widely used to assess summer warming effects on terrestrial biota, with their effects during other seasons normally being given less attention even though chambers are often deployed year-round. In addition, their effects on temperature extremes and freeze-thaw events are poorly documented. To provide robust documentation of the microclimatic influences of OTCs throughout the year, we analysed temperature data from 20 studies distributed across polar and alpine regions. The effects of OTCs on mean temperature showed a large range (-0.9 to 2.1 °C) throughout the year, but did not differ significantly between studies. Increases in mean monthly and diurnal temperature were strongly related (R(2)  = 0.70) with irradiance, indicating that PAR can be used to predict the mean warming effect of OTCs. Deeper snow trapped in OTCs also induced higher temperatures at soil/vegetation level. OTC-induced changes in the frequency of freeze-thaw events included an increase in autumn and decreases in spring and summer. Frequency of high-temperature events in OTCs increased in spring, summer and autumn compared with non-manipulated control plots. Frequency of low-temperature events was reduced by deeper snow accumulation and higher mean temperatures. The strong interactions identified between aspects of ambient environmental conditions and effects of OTCs suggest that a detailed knowledge of snow depth, temperature and irradiance levels enables us to predict how OTCs will modify the microclimate at a particular site and season. Such predictive power allows a better mechanistic understanding of observed biotic response to experimental warming studies and for more informed design of future experiments. However, a need remains to quantify OTC effects on water availability and wind speed (affecting, for example, drying rates and water stress) in combination with microclimate measurements at organism level.

Recent plant diversity changes on Europe's mountain summits.

In mountainous regions, climate warming is expected to shift species' ranges to higher altitudes. Evidence for such shifts is still mostly from revisitations of historical sites. We present recent (2001 to 2008) changes in vascular plant species richness observed in a standardized monitoring network across Europe's major mountain ranges. Species have moved upslope on average. However, these shifts had opposite effects on the summit floras' species richness in boreal-temperate mountain regions (+3.9 species on average) and Mediterranean mountain regions (-1.4 species), probably because recent climatic trends have decreased the availability of water in the European south. Because Mediterranean mountains are particularly rich in endemic species, a continuation of these trends might shrink the European mountain flora, despite an average increase in summit species richness across the region.