Positive clinical experience with paromomycin sulfate in treatment of Balantioides coli (=Balantidium coli) natural infection in zoo-kept Mandrill monkeys (Mandrillus sphinx) and Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

Balantioides coli (=Balantidium coli), a large ciliated protozoan, is reported in multiple free-ranging and captive primate species, often in association with a clinical presentation that requires medical intervention. This report describes the clinical effectiveness of paromomycin sulfate against B.coli in zoo-kept mandrill monkeys (Mandrillus sphinx, at orally doses of 8-31 mg/kg, once daily (SID) for 7 days) and gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla, at orally doses of 1.4-3.1 mg/kg, SID for 5 days).

Surgical management of dystocia in a colobus monkey (Colobus guereza).

A 14-year-old female black and white colobus monkey (Colobus guereza) presented in labor with fetal arms visible protruding from the vulva. Manual manipulation for assisted delivery of the fetus was unsuccessful. Radiographs identified a large fetal skull and hysterotomy was required with ovariohysterectomy elected to follow. The fetus was confirmed to be deceased during hysterotomy, but the dam recovered from the procedure uneventfully. The detailed description of the anesthesia and surgical procedure in this case may aid other clinicians when presented with similar dystocia cases in this species.

Intraluminal Uropygial Gland Epithelioma in an African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus).

A 27-year-old female African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) presented as a referral for surgical removal of an enlarged uropygial gland that was first observed by the owner 6 months prior. Antibiotic therapy was attempted by the referring veterinarian with limited treatment response. No abnormalities were noted in the results of a complete blood count and plasma biochemistry panel. Computed tomographic imaging of the parrot showed a left-sided uropygial gland mass with no evidence of metastasis or invasion into the underlying soft tissue or bone. The uropygial gland was surgically excised in an attempt to obtain clean margins devoid of tumor cells. Histopathological evaluation of the submitted tissue was suggestive of an intraluminal uropygial gland epithelioma. Intraluminal epithelioma should be considered as a differential diagnosis in psittacine species that are presented with an asymmetrically enlarged uropygial gland.

Evaluation of a dexmedetomidine-midazolam-ketamine combination administered intramuscularly in captive ornate box turtles (Terrapene ornata ornata).

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the effects of a combination protocol of dexmedetomidine-midazolam-ketamine (DMK) administered intramuscularly (IM) in ornate box turtles (Terrapene ornata ornata). STUDY DESIGN: Prospective experimental trial. ANIMALS: A total of 16 apparently clinically healthy adult ornate box turtles (eight male, eight female). METHODS: Each turtle was treated with dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg kg-1), midazolam (1 mg kg-1) and ketamine (10 mg kg-1) administered IM. Time to first response, time to maximal effect, the plateau phase and time to recovery from reversal administration were recorded. Physiologic variables, muscle tone, reflexes and the ability to perform endotracheal intubation were recorded at 5 minute intervals. Movement in response to an IM injection of 0.1 mL sterile 0.9% NaCl administered in the left pelvic limb, using a 25 gauge needle to a depth of just past the bevel of the needle, was assessed every 15 minutes. Atipamezole (0.5 mg kg-1) IM and flumazenil (0.05 mg kg-1) SC were administered 60 minutes after the initial DMK injections. RESULTS: The mean time to first response, time to maximal effect, the plateau phase and time to recovery were 2.1, 14.9, 38.7 and 7.8 minutes, respectively. A respiratory rate was not observed in most turtles. The body temperature significantly increased over time. The palpebral reflex was persistent in 43% of turtles and the tail pinch reflex remained intact in 13% of turtles. All turtles recovered with no observed adverse effects. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In this study, this DMK protocol administered to ornate box turtles resulted in a rapid-onset, light anesthesia lasting approximately 40 minutes and a smooth recovery with no adverse effects noted.

TERBINAFINE PHARMACOKINETICS FOLLOWING SINGLE-DOSE ORAL ADMINISTRATION IN RED-EARED SLIDER TURTLES (TRACHEMYS SCRIPTA ELEGANS): A PILOT STUDY.

In this pilot study, the pharmacokinetics of terbinafine were determined in six apparently healthy red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans) after a single PO administration. Terbinafine suspension (15 mg/kg, once) was administered via gavage tube to all turtles. Blood samples were collected immediately before (time 0) and at 1, 2, 4, 8, 24, and 48 h after drug administration. Plasma terbinafine concentrations were quantified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis was performed. None of the animals showed any adverse responses following terbinafine administration. Mean area under the curve from time 0 to 24 h was 1,213 h × ng/ml (range 319-7,309), mean peak plasma concentration was 201.5 ng/ml (range 45.8-585.3), mean time to maximum plasma concentration was 1.26 h (range 1-4), mean residence time was 7.71 h (range 3.85-14.8), and mean terminal half-life was 5.35 h (range 2.67-9.83). The administration of terbinafine (15 mg/kg, PO) may be appropriate for treatment of select fungal organisms with low minimum inhibitory concentrations in red-eared slider turtles but may require q12h administration even for organisms with low minimum inhibitory concentrations. Multiple-dose studies as well as clinical studies are needed to determine ideal dosages and efficacy.

ANESTHETIC EFFECT OF DEXMEDETOMIDINE-KETAMINEMIDAZOLAM COMBINATION ADMINISTERED INTRAMUSCULARLY TO ZOO-HOUSED NAKED MOLE-RATS (HETEROCEPHALUS GLABER).

In this study, adult intact male and female (n = 10) naked mole-rats (Heterocephalus glaber) were anesthetized using a combination of dexmedetomidine (0.06 mg/kg intramuscularly [IM]), ketamine (20 mg/kg IM), and midazolam (1.0 mg/kg IM). Atipamezole (1.0 mg/kg IM) and flumazenil (0.1 mg/kg IM) were administered 40 min after induction. Induction and recovery times were monitored and recorded. Vital parameters, including heart rate, respiratory rate, and SpO2, and reflexes were monitored every 5 min during the anesthetic period. Anesthetic induction was smooth and rapid. All monitored reflexes were lost within a median time of 60 sec (interquartile range, 15 sec). Heart rate and respiratory rate were significantly decreased from baseline, whereas there was no difference in SpO2 over the anesthetic period. The mean time to recovery was 15 ± 7 min (mean ± SD). One animal was found dead 40 min after apparent recovery, which is suspected to be an anesthetic-related death. Based on these findings, dexmedetomidine-ketamine-midazolam anesthesia is an effective anesthetic protocol in naked mole rats that provides a consistent anesthetic plane but should be used with caution in animals with underlying conditions.

PAIRED BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF PIGMENTED PLASMA SAMPLES FROM ZOO-KEPT AMERICAN FLAMINGOS (PHOENICOPTERUS RUBER) USING A POINT-OF-CARE AND A STANDARD WET CHEMISTRY ANALYZER.

American flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) are commonly kept in zoological collections, making health monitoring essential. Use of point-of-care (POC) blood analyzers that require small volumes of whole blood samples produces prompt results allowing for rapid clinical decision-making. To evaluate and compare blood biochemistry analysis results analyzed by a POC biochemistry analyzer and a laboratory wet biochemistry analyzer, blood was collected from 17 apparently healthy zoo-kept American flamingos. Analyzer agreement was investigated using the Passing-Bablock regression analysis and Spearman correlation coefficients. Plasma samples from all birds were bright yellow in color. The results from the POC analyzer used in this study were found to be outside acceptance and clinical allowable error limits when compared with the laboratory analyzer for phosphorus (Phos), total protein (TP), albumin (Alb), glucose (Glu), creatine kinase (CK), and potassium (K). For aspartate aminotransferase (AST), results were within clinical allowable error but outside the acceptance limits, and for calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na), results were within both limits. The POC analyzer failed to measure the uric acid (UA) concentrations of all the samples, and reported all bile acids (BA) concentrations as below its minimal measurable limit. The use of analyzer-specific reference intervals is recommended for most analytes tested. The POC analyzer used in this study cannot be recommended for measuring UA concentrations in brightly colored samples from American flamingos.

RETROSPECTIVE EVALUATION OF A NOVEL SUSTAINED-RELEASE IVERMECTIN VARNISH FOR TREATMENT OF WOUND MYIASIS IN ZOO-HOUSED ANIMALS.

Myiasis is a major disease condition in human and veterinary medicine. Domestic, free-ranging, and zoo-housed animals can be severely affected by myiasis. Depending on case severity, multiple treatment episodes may be indicated and can lead to recurrent capturing, handling stress, and anesthetics, all of which increase the risk of adverse responses (including death) individually and also in the herd. As an insecticide, ivermectin is often used for larval control. A total of 28 individual myiasis cases were retrospectively evaluated, out of which 11 cases were also treated using an ivermectin sustained-release varnish (SRV). The clinical outcome of all cases was assessed and the results suggest that the use of a topical ivermectin SRV (with or without concurrent injectable ivermectin) can reduce handling and treatments, has no adverse effects, and has minimal recurrence of the disease when compared with cases treated without it.

PLASMA THYROXINE (T4) CONCENTRATION IN ZOO-KEPT BLACK-TAILED PRAIRIE DOGS (CYNOMYS LUDOVICIANUS).

This study was conducted to determine plasma thyroxine (T4) concentrations in zoo-kept black-tailed prairie dogs ( Cynomys ludovicianus ). Thirty-one healthy prairie dogs of both sexes were studied as part of their annual clinical health evaluation, performed under general isoflurane anesthesia. Each animal underwent a complete physical examination, complete blood count, plasma biochemistry, and venous blood gas analysis. Heparinized venous blood samples were collected individually and processed for plasma T4 analysis using a veterinary biochemistry analyzer. The median plasma T4 concentration for the prairie dogs in this study was 4.1 µg/dl (minimum = 0.6 µg/dl; maximum = 8.0 µg/dl). The mean ± standard deviation plasma T4 concentration was 4.49 ± 2.39 µg/dl. No significant differences were found for varying ages, sexes, weights, or housing systems. The data presented in this report can promote better physiologic understanding and improve clinical management of this rodent species.

EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF STERNAL VERSUS LATERAL RECUMBENCY ON TRENDS OF SELECTED PHYSIOLOGIC PARAMETERS DURING ISOFLURANE ANESTHESIA IN ZOO-HOUSED BLACK-TAILED PRAIRIE DOGS (CYNOMYS LUDOVICIANUS).

Isoflurane gas anesthesia is often used for immobilization of prairie dogs in field studies, laboratory research, and veterinary clinical purposes. The goals of this prospective study were to evaluate the effects of sternal versus right lateral recumbency on trends of selected physiologic parameters during isoflurane anesthesia in black-tailed prairie dogs ( Cynomys ludovicianus ). Fourteen adult, zoo-housed black-tailed prairie dogs were tested during the study. Animals were anesthetized using isoflurane and randomly placed in either sternal or right lateral recumbency to evaluate changes in trends of physiologic parameters, measured selectively every 30 min throughout a 60-min anesthesia period. Results were analyzed using linear mixed modeling. Right lateral recumbency resulted in a decrease in anion gap of about 4.6 mEq/L (95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 3.1-6.0, P < 0.001), whereas sternal recumbency resulted in a lower decrease of 2.1 mEq/L (95% CI: 0.7-3.6, P = 0.02). However, the absolute values at the beginning and at the end of the anesthesia time were not significantly different between the right lateral and sternal recumbency (all P > 0.57). Body position did not have any effect on any other variables, and most of the observed physiologic changes were due to the duration of anesthesia. Our results indicate no significant effect on trends of selected physiologic parameters between sternal recumbency and right lateral recumbency during 1 hr of isoflurane anesthesia in black-tailed prairie dogs.

REFRACTOMETRIC URINE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FREE-LIVING EGYPTIAN FRUIT BATS (ROUSETTUS AEGYPTIACUS).

In both human and veterinary medicine, urine specific gravity (USG) is commonly measured by refractometry to indirectly reflect the osmolality of urine to thereby evaluate the kidney's ability to concentrate or dilute urine according to physiologic need and certain disease conditions. However, for accurate interpretation of the significance of any value, knowledge of the expected USG for the healthy species in question is required. It is generally believed that fruit bats, and Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) in particular, are unable to highly concentrate their urine. In this study, the USG was determined using a handheld urine refractometer in 43 free-living Egyptian fruit bats of both sexes. The calculated nonparametric 90% confidence interval for Egyptian fruit bats in this study was 1.006-1.050, with no association with capture site, sex, weight, or packed cell volume and total solids. Results suggest that free-living Egyptian fruit bats are able to highly concentrate their urine.

DIAGNOSIS AND SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT OF A POTENTIALLY ZOONOTIC DERMATOPHYTOSIS CAUSED BY MICROSPORUM GYPSEUM IN A ZOO-HOUSED NORTH AMERICAN PORCUPINE (ERETHIZON DORSATUM).

A female North American porcupine ( Erethizon dorsatum ) was evaluated for a unilateral pedal crusting and alopecic dermatopathy. Fungal culture and histopathology testing revealed Microsporum gypseum dermatophytosis. Treatment with topical miconazole was initiated and then discontinued after 9 days and changed to oral terbinafine. Twenty-eight days after initial examination, clinical signs were improving, and fungal cultures of the front foot, muzzle, and noninfected area along the dorsum were negative for M. gypseum. Visual exams were conducted on a regular basis. Eighty-three days after initial evaluation, clinical signs had completely resolved and repeat fungal cultures were negative. One of the animal's keepers was suspected to have acquired a dermal fungal infection 3 days after contact with this porcupine, and lesions had resolved after treatment with topical ketoconazole. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of M. gypseum diagnosed and treated in a captive North American porcupine. Veterinary staff and zookeepers should be aware of this potentially zoonotic infection.

Clinical and histologic description of ocular anatomy in captive black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus).

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical and histologic ocular anatomy of the black-tailed prairie dog (PD). ANIMALS STUDIED: Seventeen captive black-tailed PDs (11 males and six females), ranging in age from approximately 4 months to 4.5 years. PROCEDURES: Complete ocular examinations, including slit-lamp biomicroscopy, direct and indirect ophthalmoscopy, were performed under isoflurane anesthesia. The globes (n = 2) of one black-tailed PD were harvested immediately after euthanasia and processed after formalin fixation. Staining with hematoxylin-eosin, cytokeratin AE1/AE3, glial fibrillary acidic protein, chromogranin A, claudin-5, smooth muscle actin, and vimentin was performed for light microscopic evaluation. RESULTS: A thick mucinous precorneal tear film was present on the ocular surface. A vestigial nictitating membrane was identified in the medial canthus area. The limbus was heavily pigmented, the iris was a dark homogenous brown, and the pupil was round. Funduscopically, there was no tapetum lucidum, the retinal vascular pattern was holangiotic, and a horizontally elongated optic disk was visualized. The most common ocular abnormalities were acquired eyelid margin defects, present in seven eyes of six black-tailed PDs (35.3%). On histologic examination, the retina was asymmetric, thicker below the optic disk and thinner above it. CONCLUSIONS: The black-tailed PD fundus is atapetal with a holangiotic retinal vessel pattern and a horizontally elongated optic disk. Acquired lesions of the peri-ocular and eyelid region were the most common documented abnormality. Unique anatomic features of the globe and adnexa were confirmed with histologic and immunohistochemical analysis.

Pyogranulomatous panophthalmitis with systemic coronavirus disease in a domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo).

A 15-month-old spayed female ferret (Mustela putorius furo) presented for lethargy and weight loss of 2 weeks duration. Upon physical examination, a 2-mm-diameter focal area of opacity was noted in the left cornea. In addition, the ferret was quiet, in poor body condition, and dehydrated. A complete blood count and plasma biochemistry revealed a severe nonregenerative anemia, azotemia, hyperproteinemia, hypoalbuminemia, and mild hyperphosphatemia and hyperchloremia. Urinalysis revealed hyposthenuria. Whole body radiographs showed multifocal thoracic nodular disease, splenomegaly, and renomegaly. Abdominal ultrasonography confirmed bilaterally enlarged kidneys, hypoechoic liver and spleen, and a caudal abdominal hypoechoic mobile nodule. The ferret was humanely euthanized, and a postmortem examination with subsequent histopathology showed multifocal necrotizing pyogranulomas in the lung, spleen, kidneys, mesenteric lymph nodes, and serosa of the duodenum. Pyogranulomatous panophthalmitis was diagnosed in the left eye. The multisystemic granulomatous lesions were suggestive of ferret systemic coronavirus (FRSCV). The presence of coronavirus in the left eye was confirmed by positive immunohistochemistry. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) on formalin fixed paraffin embedded tissue from the lung, spleen, and kidney was negative for FRSCV and positive for ferret enteric coronavirus (FRECV). Systemic coronavirus disease in ferrets closely resembles feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) in domestic cats, which can manifest with anterior uveitis, chorioretinitis, optic neuritis, and retinal detachment. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of ocular lesions in a ferret with systemic coronavirus disease, suggesting that ferrets presented with similar ocular lesions should also be evaluated for evidence of coronavirus infection.

COAGULATION PARAMETERS IN THE AMERICAN FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS RUBER).

American flamingos ( Phoenicopterus ruber ) are commonly kept in zoologic collections. When presented to veterinarians in states of health and illness, evaluation of selected coagulation parameters can aid in assessment of various coagulopathies, as well as other disease processes such as septicemia, vasculitis, and hepatic disease. Sixteen American flamingos (eight males, eight females) were presented for annual health evaluations. A blood sample was collected from the medial metatarsal vein, and prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), fibrinogen, and fibrin degradation products (FDPs) were evaluated using an automated hemostasis analyzer. Results were reported as median and range (minimum-maximum): PT = 72.7 (39 to >100 sec), APTT = 97.5 (6.1 to >200 sec), fibrinogen = 184 (138-364 mg/dl), and FDPs = <5 (<5 to >20 µg/ml). To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of coagulation parameters in American flamingos. Knowledge of coagulation parameters will allow for better clinical assessment and management of American flamingos.

SELECTED HEMATOLOGIC AND PLASMA BIOCHEMISTRY ANALYSIS OF FERRUGINOUS DUCKS (AYTHYA NYROCA) IN ISRAEL.

The ferruginous duck (Aythya nyroca) is a medium-sized chestnut-colored diving duck that inhabits wetlands of Europe and Asia. In recent years, this species has been declining throughout much of Europe--a decline that is attributed mainly to destruction of natural habitats, and to hunting and pollution. The ferruginous duck is listed as "near threatened" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, and as a critically endangered nesting species in Israel. In 2009, a captive-breeding/reintroduction program was established in Israel, aiming to increase the species' population. The objective of this study was to collect data on normal hematology and plasma biochemistry analytes of ferruginous ducks in order to promote the species' conservation. Blood was collected from 49 birds, and 27 analytes were quantified. Compared to most other anseriformes studied, the ferruginous ducks in this study had lower white blood cell counts, which were dominated by heterophils rather than by lymphocytes.

CARDIAC ASSESSMENT OF ZOO-KEPT, BLACK-TAILED PRAIRIE DOGS (CYNOMYS LUDOVICIANUS) ANESTHETIZED WITH ISOFLURANE.

Cardiomyopathy is suggested to be a relatively common disease condition in prairie dogs; however, there are no reports of normal cardiac echosonography and radiology in the prairie dog ( Cynomys spp.). The objective of this study was to report the ultrasonographic and radiographic measurements of the heart, and plasma troponin concentration in captive healthy anesthetized black-tailed prairie dogs ( Cynomys ludovicianus ). Zoo-kept prairie dogs with no signs of cardiac disease (n = 17) were evaluated. Each animal was anesthetized with isoflurane via face mask and a complete clinical assessment was performed, including complete blood cell count and plasma biochemistry, urinalysis, blood gasses, plasma troponin concentration, three-view whole body radiography, and echocardiogram. Standard measurements were taken. Few trivial findings were identified on echocardiographic evaluation. Further research with a larger sample size is needed to determine if these variations are normal, or represent early or mild cardiac disease. The data presented here can aid, with the necessary caution, in evaluating prairie dogs with possible cardiac disease, potentially resulting in earlier diagnosis and more successful treatment.

SUSPECTED FENBENDAZOLE TOXICITY IN AN AMERICAN WHITE PELICAN (PELECANUS ERYTHRORHYNCHOS).

A wild-raised, 5.0-kg male American white pelican ( Pelecanus erythrorhynchos ) of unknown age presented for routine examination at both the start and completion of a 30-day quarantine period at a zoological park. Upon physical examination, the pelican was bright, alert, and responsive and in good body condition. Two complete blood counts and a plasma biochemistry did not reveal any clinically significant abnormalities. Whole-body radiographs were unremarkable. Two fecal flotations (28 days apart) confirmed the presence of ascarid-type eggs. Fenbendazole anthelmintic was prescribed (50 mg/kg p.o. s.i.d. for 5 days). The pelican became lethargic and inappetent on day 3 of fenbendazole treatment and was found dead on day 7. Postmortem examination and histopathology revealed intestinal crypt cell necrosis, stomatitis, and splenic lymphoid depletion consistent with fenbendazole toxicity. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report to describe fenbendazole toxicity in an American white pelican.

SELECTED PLASMA BIOCHEMISTRY ANALYTES OF HEALTHY CAPTIVE SULCATA (AFRICAN SPURRED) TORTOISES (CENTROCHELYS SULCATA).

The sulcata or African spurred tortoise (Centrochelys sulcata) is a large tortoise species that is commonly kept in zoologic collections and as a pet. The objectives of this study were to establish reference intervals for selected biochemical analytes in clinically healthy captive sulcata tortoises and to evaluate the impact of blood sampling site and sex. Blood samples were collected from 60 tortoises from either the dorsal coccygeal (tail) vein or the subcarapacial venous plexus based on their body size. The packed cell volume and refractometric total solids (TS) were determined. The concentrations of selected plasma biochemical analytes were determined using the VetScan VS2 analyzer and included albumin, aspartate aminotransferase, bile acids, calcium, creatine kinase, globulins, glucose, potassium, sodium, phosphorous, total proteins (TP), and uric acid. The calcium-to-phosphorous ratio was calculated. Reference intervals were determined and evaluated for the potential effects of blood sampling site and sex. There were significant differences (P < 0.05) associated with the blood sampling site in TS, TP, phosphorus, and globulins, with higher values in samples from the tail versus the subcarapacial sampling site. No significant statistical differences were noted in the plasma biochemistry analytes between the sexes. Reading of the globulins by the analyzer failed in 36 of 60 of the samples and was largely associated with the subcarapacial plexus sampling site. The reference intervals defined by the VetScan analyzer in this study can be used for clinical medicine and conservation of this tortoise species. Sampling site was identified as a factor significantly affecting some blood analytes in this study; this factor should thus be taken into consideration when assessing sulcata tortoise health status and using this testing methodology.

Pelvic Limb Amputation for the Treatment of a Soft-tissue Sarcoma of the Tibiotarso-tarsometatarsal Joint in a Blue-and-gold Macaw (Ara ararauna).

An unsexed, 16-year-old blue-and-gold macaw (Ara ararauna) was presented for evaluation of rapidly growing subcutaneous masses at the left tibiotarso-tarsometatarsal joint. Results of incisional biopsy were diagnostic for an intermediate-grade soft-tissue sarcoma. A distal-femoral amputation was performed and the leg was submitted for histopathology. Histopathologic examination confirmed the biopsy diagnosis and revealed neoplastic spread into the bone marrow cavity of the tibiotarsus. Excisional margins were complete. The macaw recovered and did well until it died suddenly 32 months after surgery. At necropsy, death was attributed to acute hepatic hemorrhage. No recurrence or metastasis of the sarcoma was identified.