Regulation of cardiomyocyte intracellular trafficking and signal transduction by protein palmitoylation.

Despite the well-established functions of protein palmitoylation in fundamental cellular processes, the roles of this reversible post-translational lipid modification in cardiomyocyte biology remain poorly studied. Palmitoylation is catalyzed by a family of 23 zinc finger and Asp-His-His-Cys domain-containing S-acyltransferases (zDHHC enzymes) and removed by select thioesterases of the lysophospholipase and α/ß-hydroxylase domain (ABHD)-containing families of serine hydrolases. Recently, studies utilizing genetic manipulation of zDHHC enzymes in cardiomyocytes have begun to unveil essential functions for these enzymes in regulating cardiac development, homeostasis, and pathogenesis. Palmitoylation co-ordinates cardiac electrophysiology through direct modulation of ion channels and transporters to impact their trafficking or gating properties as well as indirectly through modification of regulators of channels, transporters, and calcium handling machinery. Not surprisingly, palmitoylation has roles in orchestrating the intracellular trafficking of proteins in cardiomyocytes, but also dynamically fine-tunes cardiomyocyte exocytosis and natriuretic peptide secretion. Palmitoylation has emerged as a potent regulator of intracellular signaling in cardiomyocytes, with recent studies uncovering palmitoylation-dependent regulation of small GTPases through direct modification and sarcolemmal targeting of the small GTPases themselves or by modification of regulators of the GTPase cycle. In addition to dynamic control of G protein signaling, cytosolic DNA is sensed and transduced into an inflammatory transcriptional output through palmitoylation-dependent activation of the cGAS-STING pathway, which has been targeted pharmacologically in preclinical models of heart disease. Further research is needed to fully understand the complex regulatory mechanisms governed by protein palmitoylation in cardiomyocytes and potential emerging therapeutic targets.

Cardiac decompensation and promiscuous prenylation of small GTPases in cardiomyocytes in response to local mevalonate pathway disruption.

Investigations of major mevalonate pathway enzymes have demonstrated the importance of local isoprenoid synthesis in cardiac homeostasis. Farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FPPS) synthesizes isoprenoid precursors needed for cholesterol biosynthesis and protein prenylation. Wang, Zhang, Chen et al, in a recently published article in The Journal of Pathology, elegantly elucidated the pathological outcomes of FPPS deficiency in cardiomyocytes, which paradoxically resulted in increased prenylation of the small GTPases Ras and Rheb. Cardiomyocyte FPPS depletion caused severe dilated cardiomyopathy that was associated with enhanced GTP-loading and abundance of Ras and Rheb in lipidated protein-enriched cardiac fractions and robust activation of downstream hypertrophic ERK1/2 and mTOR signaling pathways. Cardiomyopathy and activation of ERK1/2 and mTOR caused by loss of FPPS were ameliorated by inhibition of farnesyltransferase, suggesting that impairment of FPPS activity results in promiscuous activation of Ras and Rheb through non-canonical actions of farnesyltransferase. Here, we discuss the findings and adaptive signaling mechanisms in response to disruption of local cardiomyocyte mevalonate pathway activity, highlighting how alteration in a key branch point in the mevalonate pathway affects cardiac biology and function and perturbs protein prenylation, which might unveil novel strategies and intricacies of targeting the mevalonate pathway to treat cardiovascular diseases. © 2021 The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Identification of a Novel Antisepsis Pathway: Sectm1a Enhances Macrophage Phagocytosis of Bacteria through Activating GITR.

The inability to effectively control invading bacteria or other pathogens is a major cause of multiple organ dysfunction and death in sepsis. As the first-line defense of the immune system, macrophages play a crucial role in the removal of pathogens during sepsis. In this study, we define secreted and transmembrane 1A (Sectm1a) as a novel ligand of glucocorticoid-induced TNFR (GITR) that greatly boosts macrophage phagocytosis and bactericidal capacity. Using a global Sectm1a knockout (KO) mouse model, we observed that Sectm1a deficiency significantly suppressed phagocytosis and bactericidal activity in both recruited macrophages and tissue-resident macrophages, which consequently aggravated bacterial burden in the blood and multiple organs and further increased systemic inflammation, leading to multiple organ injury and increased mortality during polymicrobial sepsis. By contrast, treatment of septic mice with recombinant Sectm1a protein (rSectm1a) not only promoted macrophage phagocytosis and bactericidal activity but also significantly improved survival outcome. Mechanistically, we identified that Sectm1a could bind to GITR in the surface of macrophages and thereby activate its downstream PI3K-Akt pathway. Accordingly, rSectm1a-mediated phagocytosis and bacterial killing were abolished in macrophages by either KO of GITR or pharmacological inhibition of the PI3K-Akt pathway. In addition, rSectm1a-induced therapeutic effects on sepsis injury were negated in GITR KO mice. Taken together, these results uncover that Sectm1a may represent a novel target for drug development to control bacterial dissemination during sepsis or other infectious diseases.

Sectm1a Facilitates Protection against Inflammation-Induced Organ Damage through Promoting TRM Self-Renewal.

Tissue-resident macrophages (TRMs) are sentinel cells for maintaining tissue homeostasis and organ function. In this study, we discovered that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration dramatically reduced TRM populations and suppressed their self-renewal capacities in multiple organs. Using loss- and gain-of-function approaches, we define Sectm1a as a novel regulator of TRM self-renewal. Specifically, at the earlier stage of endotoxemia, Sectm1a deficiency exaggerated acute inflammation-induced reduction of TRM numbers in multiple organs by suppressing their proliferation, which was associated with more infiltrations of inflammatory monocytes/neutrophils and more serious organ damage. By contrast, administration of recombinant Sectm1a enhanced TRM populations and improved animal survival upon endotoxin challenge. Mechanistically, we identified that Sectm1a-induced upregulation in the self-renewal capacity of TRM is dependent on GITR-activated T helper cell expansion and cytokine production. Meanwhile, we found that TRMs may play an important role in protecting local vascular integrity during endotoxemia. Our study demonstrates that Sectm1a contributes to stabling TRM populations through maintaining their self-renewal capacities, which benefits the host immune response to acute inflammation. Therefore, Sectm1a may serve as a new therapeutic agent for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

MicroRNA-223 is essential for maintaining functional ß-cell mass during diabetes through inhibiting both FOXO1 and SOX6 pathways.

The initiation and development of diabetes are mainly ascribed to the loss of functional ß-cells. Therapies designed to regenerate ß-cells provide great potential for controlling glucose levels and thereby preventing the devastating complications associated with diabetes. This requires detailed knowledge of the molecular events and underlying mechanisms in this disorder. Here, we report that expression of microRNA-223 (miR-223) is up-regulated in islets from diabetic mice and humans, as well as in murine Min6 ß-cells exposed to tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) or high glucose. Interestingly, miR-223 knockout (KO) mice exhibit impaired glucose tolerance and insulin resistance. Further analysis reveals that miR-223 deficiency dramatically suppresses ß-cell proliferation and insulin secretion. Mechanistically, using luciferase reporter gene assays, histological analysis, and immunoblotting, we demonstrate that miR-223 inhibits both forkhead box O1 (FOXO1) and SRY-box 6 (SOX6) signaling, a unique bipartite mechanism that modulates expression of several ß-cell markers (pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1 (PDX1), NK6 homeobox 1 (NKX6.1), and urocortin 3 (UCN3)) and cell cycle-related genes (cyclin D1, cyclin E1, and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor P27 (P27)). Importantly, miR-223 overexpression in ß-cells could promote ß-cell proliferation and improve ß-cell function. Taken together, our results suggest that miR-223 is a critical factor for maintaining functional ß-cell mass and adaptation during metabolic stress.

Tumor susceptibility gene 101 ameliorates endotoxin-induced cardiac dysfunction by enhancing Parkin-mediated mitophagy.

Cardiac mitochondrial damage and subsequent inflammation are hallmarks of endotoxin-induced myocardial depression. Activation of the Parkin/PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) pathway has been shown to promote autophagy of damaged mitochondria (mitophagy) and to protect from endotoxin-induced cardiac dysfunction. Tumor susceptibility gene 101 (TSG101) is a key member of the endosomal recycling complexes required for transport, which may affect autophagic flux. In this study, we investigated whether TSG101 regulates mitophagy and influences the outcomes of endotoxin-induced myocardial dysfunction. TSG101 transgenic and knockdown mice underwent endotoxin/lipopolysaccharide treatment (10 µg/g) and were assessed for survival, cardiac function, systemic/local inflammation, and activity of mitophagy mediators in the heart. Upon endotoxin challenge and compared with WT mice, TSG101 transgenic mice exhibited increased survival, preserved cardiac contractile function, reduced inflammation, and enhanced mitophagy activation in the heart. By contrast, TSG101 knockdown mice displayed opposite phenotypes during endotoxemia. Mechanistically, both coimmunoprecipitation assays and coimmunofluorescence staining revealed that TSG101 directly binds to Parkin in the cytosol of myocytes and facilitates translocation of Parkin from the cytosol to the mitochondria. Our results indicate that TSG101 elevation could protect against endotoxin-triggered myocardial injury by promoting Parkin-induced mitophagy.

Tsg101 positively regulates physiologic-like cardiac hypertrophy through FIP3-mediated endosomal recycling of IGF-1R.

Development of physiologic cardiac hypertrophy has primarily been ascribed to the IGF-1 and its receptor, IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R), and subsequent activation of the protein kinase B (Akt) pathway. However, regulation of endosome-mediated recycling and degradation of IGF-1R during physiologic hypertrophy has not been investigated. In a physiologic hypertrophy model of treadmill-exercised mice, we observed that levels of tumor susceptibility gene 101 (Tsg101), a key member of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport, were dramatically elevated in the heart compared with sedentary controls. To determine the role of Tsg101 on physiologic hypertrophy, we generated a transgenic (TG) mouse model with cardiac-specific overexpression of Tsg101. These TG mice exhibited a physiologic-like cardiac hypertrophy phenotype at 8 wk evidenced by: 1) the absence of cardiac fibrosis, 2) significant improvement of cardiac function, and 3) increased total and plasma membrane levels of IGF-1R and increased phosphorylation of Akt. Mechanistically, we identified that Tsg101 interacted with family-interacting protein 3 (FIP3) and IGF-1R, thereby stabilizing FIP3 and enhancing recycling of IGF-1R. In vitro, adenovirus-mediated overexpression of Tsg101 in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes resulted in cell hypertrophy, which was blocked by addition of monensin, an inhibitor of endosome-mediated recycling, and by small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown (KD) of FIP3. Furthermore, cardiac-specific KD of Tsg101 showed a significant reduction in levels of endosomal recycling compartment members (Rab11a and FIP3), IGF-1R, and Akt phosphorylation. Most interestingly, Tsg101-KD mice failed to develop cardiac hypertrophy after intense treadmill training. Taken together, our data identify Tsg101 as a novel positive regulator of physiologic cardiac hypertrophy through facilitating the FIP3-mediated endosomal recycling of IGF-1R.-Essandoh, K., Deng, S., Wang, X., Jiang, M., Mu, X., Peng, J., Li, Y., Peng, T., Wagner, K.-U., Rubinstein, J., Fan, G.-C. Tsg101 positively regulates physiologic-like cardiac hypertrophy through FIP3-mediated endosomal recycling of IGF-1R.

MicroRNA-223-5p and -3p Cooperatively Suppress Necroptosis in Ischemic/Reperfused Hearts.

Recent studies have shown that myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced necrosis can be controlled by multiple genes. In this study, we observed that both strands (5p and 3p) of miR-223 were remarkably dysregulated in mouse hearts upon I/R. Precursor miR-223 (pre-miR-223) transgenic mouse hearts exhibited better recovery of contractile performance over reperfusion period and lesser degree of myocardial necrosis than wild type hearts upon ex vivo and in vivo myocardial ischemia. Conversely, pre-miR-223 knock-out (KO) mouse hearts displayed opposite effects. Furthermore, we found that the RIP1/RIP3/MLKL necroptotic pathway and inflammatory response were suppressed in transgenic hearts, whereas they were activated in pre-miR-223 KO hearts upon I/R compared with wild type controls. Accordingly, treatment of pre-miR-223 KO mice with necrostatin-1s, a potent necroptosis inhibitor, significantly decreased I/R-triggered cardiac necroptosis, infarction size, and dysfunction. Mechanistically, we identified two critical cell death receptors, TNFR1 and DR6, as direct targets of miR-223-5p, whereas miR-223-3p directly suppressed the expression of NLRP3 and IκB kinase α, two important mediators known to be involved in I/R-induced inflammation and cell necroptosis. Our findings indicate that miR-223-5p/-3p duplex works together and cooperatively inhibits I/R-induced cardiac necroptosis at multiple layers. Thus, pre-miR-223 may constitute a new therapeutic agent for the treatment of ischemic heart disease.

Overexpression of miR-223 Tips the Balance of Pro- and Anti-hypertrophic Signaling Cascades toward Physiologic Cardiac Hypertrophy.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been extensively examined in pathological cardiac hypertrophy. However, few studies focused on profiling the miRNA alterations in physiological hypertrophic hearts. In this study we generated a transgenic mouse model with cardiac-specific overexpression of miR-223. Our results showed that elevation of miR-223 caused physiological cardiac hypertrophy with enhanced cardiac function but no fibrosis. Using the next generation RNA sequencing, we observed that most of dys-regulated genes (e.g. Atf3/5, Egr1/3, Sfrp2, Itgb1, Ndrg4, Akip1, Postn, Rxfp1, and Egln3) in miR-223-transgenic hearts were associated with cell growth, but they were not directly targeted by miR-223. Interestingly, these dys-regulated genes are known to regulate the Akt signaling pathway. We further identified that miR-223 directly interacted with 3'-UTRs of FBXW7 and Acvr2a, two negative regulators of the Akt signaling. However, we also validated that miR-223 directly inhibited the expression of IGF-1R and ß1-integrin, two positive regulators of the Akt signaling. Lastly, Western blotting did reveal that Akt was activated in miR-223-overexpressing hearts. Adenovirus-mediated overexpression of miR-223 in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes induced cell hypertrophy, which was blocked by the addition of MK2206, a specific inhibitor of Akt Taken together, these data represent the first piece of work showing that miR-223 tips the balance of promotion and inactivation of Akt signaling cascades toward activation of Akt, a key regulator of physiological cardiac hypertrophy. Thus, our study suggests that the ultimate phenotype outcome of a miRNA may be decided by the secondary net effects of the whole target network rather than by several primary direct targets in an organ/tissue.

Blockade of exosome generation with GW4869 dampens the sepsis-induced inflammation and cardiac dysfunction.

Sepsis is an infection-induced severe inflammatory disorder that leads to multiple organ failure. Amongst organs affected, myocardial depression is believed to be a major contributor to septic death. While it has been identified that large amounts of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines are culprit for triggering cardiac dysfunction in sepsis, the underlying mechanisms remain obscure. Additionally, recent studies have shown that exosomes released from bacteria-infected macrophages are pro-inflammatory. Hence, we examined in this study whether blocking the generation of exosomes would be protective against sepsis-induced inflammatory response and cardiac dysfunction. To this end, we pre-treated RAW264.7 macrophages with GW4869, an inhibitor of exosome biogenesis/release, followed by endotoxin (LPS) challenge. In vivo, we injected wild-type (WT) mice with GW4869 for 1h prior to endotoxin treatment or cecal ligation/puncture (CLP) surgery. We observed that pre-treatment with GW4869 significantly impaired release of both exosomes and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6) in RAW264.7 macrophages. At 12h after LPS treatment or CLP surgery, WT mice pre-treated with GW4869 displayed lower amounts of exosomes and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the serum than control PBS-injected mice. Accordingly, GW4869 treatment diminished the sepsis-induced cardiac inflammation, attenuated myocardial depression and prolonged survival. Together, our findings indicate that blockade of exosome generation in sepsis dampens the sepsis-triggered inflammatory response and thereby, improves cardiac function and survival.

Role of extracellular and intracellular microRNAs in sepsis.

Sepsis is the major cause of death in the intensive care unit (ICU). Numerous biomarkers have been studied to identify the cause and severity of sepsis but these factors cannot differentiate between infectious and non-infectious inflammatory response. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are non-coding RNA transcripts that regulate the expression of genes by repressing translation or degrading mRNA. Importantly, miRNAs can be released outside cells and easily detectable in bodily fluids such as blood, sweat, urine and breast milk. Numerous studies have explored the idea of utilizing extracellular miRNAs as biomarkers for sepsis by profiling the dysregulation of miRNAs in blood samples of sepsis patients. So far, miR-223, miR-146a and miR-150 have been identified to have promising prognostic and diagnostic value to sepsis. In addition, various intracellular miRNAs have been implicated to play critical roles in regulating the TLR-NF-κB pathway, which is a well-known inflammatory signaling pathway involved in the process of sepsis. Here, we summarize the recent progress on the role of extracellular and intracellular miRNAs in sepsis. Specifically, we discuss the possible role of circulating miRNA biomarkers for the diagnosis of sepsis and how intracellular miRNAs regulate the inflammatory responses in sepsis.

zDHHC9 Regulates Cardiomyocyte Rab3a Activity and Atrial Natriuretic Peptide Secretion Through Palmitoylation of Rab3gap1.

Production and release of natriuretic peptides by the stressed heart reduce cardiac workload by promoting vasodilation, natriuresis, and diuresis, which has been leveraged in the recent development of novel heart-failure pharmacotherapies, yet the mechanisms regulating cardiomyocyte exocytosis and natriuretic peptide release remain ill defined. We found that the Golgi S-acyltransferase zDHHC9 palmitoylates Rab3gap1 resulting in its spatial segregation from Rab3a, elevation of Rab3a-GTP levels, formation of Rab3a-positive peripheral vesicles, and impairment of exocytosis that limits atrial natriuretic peptide release. This novel pathway potentially can be exploited for targeting natriuretic peptide signaling in the treatment of heart failure.

NADPH Oxidases in Diastolic Dysfunction and Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidases regulate production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that cause oxidative damage to cellular components but also regulate redox signaling in many cell types with essential functions in the cardiovascular system. Research over the past couple of decades has uncovered mechanisms by which NADPH oxidase (NOX) enzymes regulate oxidative stress and compartmentalize intracellular signaling in endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, macrophages, cardiomyocytes, fibroblasts, and other cell types. NOX2 and NOX4, for example, regulate distinct redox signaling mechanisms in cardiac myocytes pertinent to the onset and progression of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), which accounts for at least half of all heart failure cases and has few effective treatments to date, is classically associated with ventricular diastolic dysfunction, i.e., defects in ventricular relaxation and/or filling. However, HFpEF afflicts multiple organ systems and is associated with systemic pathologies including inflammation, oxidative stress, arterial stiffening, cardiac fibrosis, and renal, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscle dysfunction. Basic science studies and clinical data suggest a role for systemic and myocardial oxidative stress in HFpEF, and evidence from animal models demonstrates the critical functions of NOX enzymes in diastolic function and several HFpEF-associated comorbidities. Here, we discuss the roles of NOX enzymes in cardiovascular cells that are pertinent to the development and progression of diastolic dysfunction and HFpEF and outline potential clinical implications.

Sectm1a deficiency aggravates inflammation-triggered cardiac dysfunction through disruption of LXRα signalling in macrophages.

AIMS: Cardiac dysfunction is a prevalent comorbidity of disrupted inflammatory homeostasis observed in conditions such as sepsis (acute) or obesity (chronic). Secreted and transmembrane protein 1a (Sectm1a) has previously been implicated to regulate inflammatory responses, yet its role in inflammation-associated cardiac dysfunction is virtually unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using the CRISPR/Cas9 system, we generated a global Sectm1a-knockout (KO) mouse model and observed significantly increased mortality and cardiac injury after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection, when compared with wild-type (WT) control. Further analysis revealed significantly increased accumulation of inflammatory macrophages in hearts of LPS-treated KO mice. Accordingly, ablation of Sectm1a remarkably increased inflammatory cytokines levels both in vitro [from bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs)] and in vivo (in serum and myocardium) after LPS challenge. RNA-sequencing results and bioinformatics analyses showed that the most significantly down-regulated genes in KO-BMDMs were modulated by LXRα, a nuclear receptor with robust anti-inflammatory activity in macrophages. Indeed, we identified that the nuclear translocation of LXRα was disrupted in KO-BMDMs when treated with GW3965 (LXR agonist), resulting in higher levels of inflammatory cytokines, compared to GW3965-treated WT-cells. Furthermore, using chronic inflammation model of high-fat diet (HFD) feeding, we observed that infiltration of inflammatory monocytes/macrophages into KO-hearts were greatly increased and accordingly, worsened cardiac function, compared to WT-HFD controls. CONCLUSION: This study defines Sectm1a as a new regulator of inflammatory-induced cardiac dysfunction through modulation of LXRα signalling in macrophages. Our data suggest that augmenting Sectm1a activity may be a potential therapeutic approach to resolve inflammation and associated cardiac dysfunction.

Palmitoylation: A Fatty Regulator of Myocardial Electrophysiology.

Regulation of cardiac physiology is well known to occur through the action of kinases that reversibly phosphorylate ion channels, calcium handling machinery, and signaling effectors. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that palmitoylation or S-acylation, the post-translational modification of cysteines with saturated fatty acids, plays instrumental roles in regulating the localization, activity, stability, sorting, and function of numerous proteins, including proteins known to have essential functions in cardiomyocytes. However, the impact of this modification on cardiac physiology requires further investigation. S-acylation is catalyzed by the zDHHC family of S-acyl transferases that localize to intracellular organelle membranes or the sarcolemma. Recent work has begun to uncover functions of S-acylation in the heart, particularly in the regulation of cardiac electrophysiology, including modification of the sodium-calcium exchanger, phospholemman and the cardiac sodium pump, as well as the voltage-gated sodium channel. Elucidating the regulatory functions of zDHHC enzymes in cardiomyocytes and determination of how S-acylation is altered in the diseased heart will shed light on how these modifications participate in cardiac pathogenesis and potentially identify novel targets for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. Indeed, proteins with critical signaling roles in the heart are also S-acylated, including receptors and G-proteins, yet the dynamics and functions of these modifications in myocardial physiology have not been interrogated. Here, we will review what is known about zDHHC enzymes and substrate S-acylation in myocardial physiology and highlight future areas of investigation that will uncover novel functions of S-acylation in cardiac homeostasis and pathophysiology.

Tsg101 Is Involved in the Sorting and Re-Distribution of Glucose Transporter-4 to the Sarcolemma Membrane of Cardiac Myocytes.

Cardiac cells can adapt to pathological stress-induced energy crisis by shifting from fatty acid oxidation to glycolysis. However, the use of glucose-insulin-potassium (GIK) solution in patients undergoing cardiac surgery does not alleviate ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced energy shortage. This indicates that insulin-mediated translocation of glucose transporter-4 (Glut-4) is impaired in ischemic hearts. Indeed, cardiac myocytes contain two intracellular populations of Glut-4: an insulin-dependent non-endosomal pool (also referred to as Glut-4 storage vesicles, GSVs) and an insulin-independent endosomal pool. Tumor susceptibility gene 101 (Tsg101) has been implicated in the endosomal recycling of membrane proteins. In this study, we aimed to examine whether Tsg101 regulated the sorting and re-distribution of Glut-4 to the sarcolemma membrane of cardiomyocytes under basal and ischemic conditions, using gain- and loss-of-function approaches. Forced overexpression of Tsg101 in mouse hearts and isolated cardiomyocytes could promote Glut-4 re-distribution to the sarcolemma, leading to enhanced glucose entry and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) generation in I/R hearts which in turn, attenuation of I/R-induced cardiac dysfunction. Conversely, knockdown of Tsg101 in cardiac myocytes exhibited opposite effects. Mechanistically, we identified that Tsg101 could interact and co-localize with Glut-4 in the sarcolemma membrane of cardiomyocytes. Our findings define Tsg101 as a novel regulator of cardiac Glut-4 trafficking, which may provide a new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of ischemic heart disease.

GDF3 Protects Mice against Sepsis-Induced Cardiac Dysfunction and Mortality by Suppression of Macrophage Pro-Inflammatory Phenotype.

Macrophages are critical for regulation of inflammatory response during endotoxemia and septic shock. However, the mediators underlying their regulatory function remain obscure. Growth differentiation factor 3 (GDF3), a member of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß) superfamily, has been implicated in inflammatory response. Nonetheless, the role of GDF3 in macrophage-regulated endotoxemia/sepsis is unknown. Here, we show that serum GDF3 levels in septic patients are elevated and strongly correlate with severity of sepsis and 28-day mortality. Interestingly, macrophages treated with recombinant GDF3 protein (rGDF3) exhibit greatly reduced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, comparing to controls upon endotoxin challenge. Moreover, acute administration of rGDF3 to endotoxin-treated mice suppresses macrophage infiltration to the heart, attenuates systemic and cardiac inflammation with less pro-inflammatory macrophages (M1) and more anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2), as well as prolongs mouse survival. Mechanistically, GDF3 is able to activate Smad2/Smad3 phosphorylation, and consequently inhibits the expression of nod-like receptor protein-3 (NLRP3) in macrophages. Accordingly, blockade of Smad2/Smad3 phosphorylation with SB431542 significantly offsets rGDF3-mediated anti-inflammatory effects. Taken together, this study uncovers that GDF3, as a novel sepsis-associated factor, may have a dual role in the pathophysiology of sepsis. Acute administration of rGDF3 into endotoxic shock mice could increase survival outcome and improve cardiac function through anti-inflammatory response by suppression of M1 macrophage phenotype. However, constitutive high levels of GDF3 in human sepsis patients are associated with lethality, suggesting that GDF3 may promote macrophage polarization toward M2 phenotype which could lead to immunosuppression.

Tsg101 positively regulates P62-Keap1-Nrf2 pathway to protect hearts against oxidative damage.

Currently, most antioxidants do not show any favorable clinical outcomes in reducing myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury, suggesting an urgent need for exploring a new regulator of redox homeostasis in I/R hearts. Here, using heart-specific transgenic (TG) and knockdown (KD) mouse models, tumor susceptibility gene 101 (Tsg101) is defined as a novel cardiac-protector against I/R-triggered oxidative stress. RNA sequencing and bioinformatics data surprisingly reveal that most upregulated genes in Tsg101-TG hearts are transcribed by Nrf2. Accordingly, pharmacological inhibition of Nrf2 offsets Tsg101-elicited cardio-protection. Mechanistically, Tsg101 interacts with SQSTM1/p62 through its PRR domain, and promotes p62 aggregation, leading to recruitment of Keap1 for degradation by autophagosomes and release of Nrf2 to the nucleus. Furthermore, knockout of p62 abrogates Tsg101-induced cardio-protective effects during I/R. Hence, our findings uncover a previously unrecognized role of Tsg101 in the regulation of p62/Keap1/Nrf2 signaling cascades and provide a new strategy for the treatment of ischemic heart disease.

Regulation of BECN1-mediated autophagy by HSPB6: Insights from a human HSPB6S10F mutant.

HSPB6/Hsp20 (heat shock protein family B [small] member 6) has emerged as a novel cardioprotector against stress-induced injury. We identified a human mutant of HSPB6 (HSPB6S10F) exclusively present in dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) patients. Cardiac expression of this mutant in mouse hearts resulted in remodeling and dysfunction, which progressed to heart failure and early death. These detrimental effects were associated with reduced interaction of mutant HSPB6S10F with BECN1/Beclin 1, leading to BECN1 ubiquitination and its proteosomal degradation. As a result, autophagy flux was substantially inhibited and apoptosis was increased in HSPB6S10F-mutant hearts. In contrast, overexpression of wild-type HSPB6 (HSPB6 WT) not only increased BECN1 levels, but also competitively suppressed binding of BECN1 to BCL2, resulting in stimulated autophagy. Indeed, preinhibition of autophagy attenuated the cardioprotective effects of HSPB6 WT. Taken together, these findings reveal a new regulatory mechanism of HSPB6 in cell survival through its interaction with BECN1. Furthermore, Ser10 appears to be crucial for the protective effects of HSPB6 and transversion of this amino acid to Phe contributes to cardiomyopathy.

Circulating Exosomes Isolated from Septic Mice Induce Cardiovascular Hyperpermeability Through Promoting Podosome Cluster Formation.

Septic shock increases vascular permeability, leading to multiple organ failure including cardiac dysfunction, a major contributor to septic death. Podosome, an actin-based dynamic membrane structure, plays critical roles in extracellular matrix degradation and angiogenesis. However, whether podosome contributes to endothelial barrier dysfunction during septic shock remains unknown. In this study, we found that the endothelial hyperpermeability, stimulated by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and thrombin, was accompanied by increased formation of podosome clusters at the cell periphery, indicating a positive correlation between podosome clusters and endothelial leakage. Interestingly, we observed that circulating exosomes collected from septic mice were able to stimulate podosome cluster formation in cardiac endothelial cells, together with increased permeability in vitro/in vivo and cardiac dysfunction. Mechanistically, we identified that septic exosomes contained higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) than normal ones, which were effectively transported to endothelial cells (ECs). Depletion of ROS in septic exosomes significantly reduced their capacity for promoting podosome cluster formation and thereby dampened vascular leakage. Finally, we elucidated that podosome cluster-induced endothelial hyperpermeability was associated with fragmentation/depletion of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) at the cell periphery. Our results demonstrate that septic exosomes were enriched with high amounts of ROS, which can be transported to ECs, leading to the generation of podosome clusters in target ECs and thereby, causing ZO-1 relocation, vascular leakage, and cardiac dysfunction.