[MacCAT-T between Claim and Practice - Challenges of Assessing Capacity for Consent in Dementia]. / MacCAT-T zwischen Anspruch und Praxis ­ Herausforderungen bei der Beurteilung von Einwilligungsfähigkeit bei Demenz.

BACKGROUND: Consent is a prerequisite for medical diagnostic and therapeutic action. There is no standardised procedure for assessing the ability to give consent. The most widely used tool for structured assessment is the MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Treatment (MacCAT-T). OBJECTIVES: People with dementia have impaired capacity to consent because of their disease. In order to answer the question to what extent structured assessment procedures can be usefully applied to people with dementia, we analyse the function, strengths and weaknesses of structured assessment procedures with a focus on the MacCAT-T and discuss suggestions for modification and further development of the tool. METHODS: Using the PubMed literature database, a systematic literature search and analysis was conducted on papers published since 2010, following PRISMA guidelines.Results Although the MacCAT-T is a valid and reliable tool, it cannot comprehensively address memory problems in people with dementia. It primarily measures cognitive functions. However, Decisions based on emotions, intuitions and values, are not captured by the MacCAT-T. Communicative limitations in people with dementia are not taken into account. CONCLUSIONS: It is recommended to provide information in simple language, written down and visualised for people with dementia. The development and elaboration of a graduated procedure for the examination of capacity to consent is indicated. The gradations of the scope and depth of the assessment to be determined should be based on the severity of the cognitive impairment, the benefit/risk ratio of the proposed medical intervention and the individual profile of affective functions and value-based imprints.

Unsettling Realities of Nazism and the Legacy of the German Neurological Society.

On behalf of the German Neurological Society (DGN), a study was conducted into how far former chairmen, honorary chairmen, and honorary members could be regarded as incriminated from the National Socialist period. While an online supplement of this journal presents seven individual biographies (in six papers) by way of example, this paper offers an overview summarizing the project results and introducing the biographies. The first part and the methodological section discuss the difficulties of retrospectively identifying neurologists involved in the Nazi movement. Formal characteristics (eg, membership of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) or other Nazi organizations or participation in Nazi crimes) and content-related clues (eg, statements reflecting Nazi ideology, personal contacts with Nazi officials or active support of the system) can be helpful. The second part summarizes the principal results of a study of 28 German and Austrian neuroscientists with regard to their involvement and their post-war careers. Six of the seven "founding fathers" of the DGN were former NSDAP members; 10 of the 13 presidents in office until 1976 had belonged to Nazi organizations-the NSDAP, the SA ("Brownshirts") or the SS ("Blackshirts"). Moreover, seven out of 10 honorary presidents had formal or substantive links to National Socialism. Of the German and Austrian honorary members appointed up to 1985, two-thirds had leanings to Nazi ideology or the National Socialist system. This paper concludes by outlining how the DGN and its members are currently addressing this historical legacy in order to establish a responsible culture of remembrance. ANN NEUROL 2021;90:546-557.

[Persecution, expulsion, annihilation. Neurologists in the NS era-For active remembrance]. / Verfolgung, Vertreibung, Vernichtung. Neurologinnen und Neurologen in der NS-Zeit ­ Für ein aktives Erinnern.

The German Neurological Society (DGN) has commissioned historical research related to the expulsion and murder of German-speaking neurologists during the National Socialism era (NS). Intended as an introduction to the following background essays and biographies in this special issue of Der Nervenarzt, this article summarizes the results and perspectives of medical historical research addressing the persecution of German physicians. Additionally, it shows how the current project of the DGN fits into the context of an interdisciplinary culture of commemoration by a confrontation with National Socialism. Of particular importance for the DGN is that it was founded as the successor to the Society of German Neurologists (GDN), which was dissolved in 1935. In the early stages of the NS era, the GDN was the professional home of numerous Jewish specialists and those labeled "Jewish" by NS law, who were expelled from Germany and (after the "Anschluss" of 1938) from Austria, deported to concentration camps or driven to suicide. With this in mind, "persecution", "expulsion", and "extermination" raise not only questions of collegiality, decency, and morality. Investigating and remembering this era also affects today's public image of the neurological specialist society and constitutes an important part of its culture of remembrance and its history politics.

[Legalized deprivation of rights: on the legal construction of dismissal and expulsion under National Socialism]. / Legalisierte Entrechtung: zur juristischen Konstruktion von Entlassung und Vertreibung im Nationalsozialismus.

In order to provide a deeper understanding of the mechanisms and background leading to the persecution and expulsion, particularly of physicians labelled as "Jewish" in Nazi Germany, this article outlines their gradual disenfranchisement, through laws and decrees in the years 1933-1939. As the publicly visible terror immediately after the Nazi takeover was rejected in large parts of society, the regime resorted early on to supposedly legal forms of exclusion. With the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service of 7 April 1933, "non-Aryan" (§â€¯3) and politically unreliable (§â€¯4) persons could be removed from office, if necessary, even without any further comment (§â€¯6). However, regulations for long-standing civil servants as well as the "front-line fighter privilege" reduced the desired effect, e.g. in university medicine in a way that was not intended by those in power. The Reich Citizenship Law of 1935, as part of the so-called Nuremberg Laws introduced the criterion of "German blood". This resulted in a second large wave of dismissals. Outside the universities, a plethora of further defamatory legal norms, from the regulation on the approval of physicians for activities with the health insurances and the Law on Honorary Appointments (both in 1933), the so-called Flag Decree (1937) and withdrawal of the approbation (1938), aimed at the gradual "elimination" of Jewish physicians, which for many of them ended in extermination in the Holocaust. This practice implemented over years was based on a jurisdiction devised especially for that purpose and in hindsight it has been perfectly defined as "legal injustice".

[The exclusion of "non-Aryan" scientists: universities, clinics and professional organizations]. / Der Ausschluss "nichtarischer" Wissenschaftler: Universitäten, Kliniken, Standesorganisationen.

With the implementation of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (1933), including the Third Implementation Decree (1934), the Regulation for Obtaining a Teaching License (1934) and the Law for the Dismissal and Transfer of University Teachers (1935), the National Socialist (NS) government created legislative instruments to ban university staff (from lecturers to full professors) labelled as Jewish or considered politically unwanted from teaching and research. Whereas around 20% of the staff at the universities were affected by these measures after 1933, at various medical faculties the figures reached 30-40% and at neurological departments and institutes sometimes up to 90%. Student Nazi activists played a significant role in expelling faculty members from office. As beneficiaries of the expulsions, young doctors often improved their career prospects and established professors remained silent out of political conviction, opportunism or fear. A (self) coordination (Gleichschaltung) with immediate or gradual exclusion of "non-Aryan" members and boards is documented for numerous medical organizations and associations (e.g. Deutscher Ärztevereinsbund, Hartmannbund, German Medical Women's Association, Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians) as well as for scientific academies (e.g. Leopoldina) and research societies (Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes, German Research Foundation). The NS-loyal Society of German Neurologists and Psychiatrists, which had been founded in 1935, tolerated "Jewish" members until 1938. As a whole, the picture that emerged from everyday medical (and neurological) practice is one of drastic changes that massively affected not only the lives of many doctors but also the moral standards in terms of patient care, teaching, research and collegiality.

[Context of the emigration of Jewish neurologists (1933-1939)]. / Rahmenbedingungen der Emigration jüdischer Neurologinnen und Neurologen (1933­1939).

This article focuses on the historical context of the emigration of "Jewish" doctors during the "Third Reich". The approximately 9000 Jewish physicians, who were still able to emigrate, represented 17% of the German medical profession in 1933. Around three quarters of them left the German Reich by 1939, mainly for the USA, Palestine and Great Britain. Initially, Jewish organizations fueled hopes of a temporary exile; however, in the wake of the events of 1938 ("Anschluss" of Austria, failure of the Evian Conference, establishment of the Central Office for Jewish Emigration headed by Adolf Eichmann in Vienna, maximization of economic plundering etc.) emigration via the intermediate step of forced emigration had turned into a life-saving flight. Scientists could appeal to special aid organizations for support. Among the best known are the Emergency Community of German Scientists Abroad initiated in Zurich, the Academic Assistance Council founded in England, from which originated the Society for the Protection of Science and Learning as well as the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced German Scholars created in New York. Their help was often subject to criteria, such as publication performance, scientific reputation and age. Promising researchers who were awarded a scholarship before 1933 could rely on a commitment from the Rockefeller Foundation. The historical analysis of options and motivations but also of restrictions and impediments affecting the decision-making process to emigrate, provides the basis for a retrospective approach to individual hardships and fates.

[Late forced emigration without perspectives: Alfred Hauptmann and Adolf Wallenberg]. / Späte Zwangsemigration ohne Perspektive: Alfred Hauptmann und Adolf Wallenberg.

Archival documents and further biographical testimonies reveal that dismissal and expulsion on racist grounds also affected neurologists in leading clinical positions and at an advanced age. Alfred Hauptmann (1881-1948), full professor for neurology and psychiatry in Halle/Saale, member of the Leopoldina and discoverer of phenobarbitone treatment for epilepsy, emigrated first to Switzerland and then to the USA after the anti-Jewish pogroms in November 1938 and a subsequent "protective custody" imposed on him at the age of 58 years. Adolf Wallenberg (1862-1949), a self-made neurologist, described the syndrome later named after him in 1895. As a clinician he carried out research in the field of neuroanatomy until the National Socialists ousted him from his workplace in Danzig. At the age of 77 years, he emigrated to the USA via Great Britain, but did not manage to settle down again in his profession. For both physicians, neurology was their purpose in life, they felt patriotically attached to their home country and saw no future for themselves after their late forced emigration. Hauptmann is today commemorated by an award for experimental and clinical research on epilepsy, Wallenberg by the German Neurological Society award for outstanding achievements in the fields of cerebrovascular diseases, brain circulation and brain metabolism.

[Persecuted and forgotten? The neurologists Kurt Goldstein and Friedrich Heinrich Lewy]. / Verfolgt und vergessen? Die Neurologen Kurt Goldstein und Friedrich Heinrich Lewy.

This paper commemorates the careers and the scientific influence of the clinical neurologists Kurt Goldstein and Friedrich Heinrich Lewy including their forced migration in the mid-1930s. Goldstein (1878-1965) set up independent neurological departments in Frankfurt/Main and Berlin, adopting a decidedly holistic approach in medical care, research and teaching. He is therefore considered a co-founder of modern neuropsychology and neurorehabilitation. Goldstein came into the focus of the National Socialists as a Jew, socialist and adherent of psychotherapeutic methods. After a short incarceration he fled via Switzerland and Holland to the USA. Lewy (1885-1970) for his part specialized in neuropathological examinations and in 1912 quickly discovered the inclusion bodies in the cytoplasm of nerve cells named after him. As head of a neurological institute in Berlin with inpatient beds, he decided to leave Germany as early as 1933 and arrived after a stopover in England in the United States one year later. The biographies of the two highly innovative neurologists illustrate that career opportunities for doctors of Jewish descent were already clearly limited during the Weimar Republic and that they had to face anti-Semitic tendencies even after their arrival in the USA.

[Disparate lives: Ludwig Guttmann and Robert Wartenberg]. / Disparate Lebenswege: Ludwig Guttmann und Robert Wartenberg.

The neurologists Sir Ludwig Guttmann and Robert Wartenberg had a number of things in common, e.g., both enjoyed high international recognition for the clinical care they provided to paraplegics and for their contributions to the development of neurological diagnostics. Both were born before 1900. Both were classified as "Jewish" by the National Socialist regime because of their origins. Both had to flee from Germany in the 1930s but nevertheless did not appear to harbor any grudges after 1945; however, both also show differences even more than similarities. Guttmann (1899-1980) stood up for those persecuted, for instance during the November pogroms in 1938. After his late emigration, he soon found a new home in England. His skills in neurosurgery enabled him to convert a military hospital into the world's leading treatment center for spinal cord injuries. He was the founder of the Paralympic Games and received a knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II. In 1971 the German Neurological Society (DGN) awarded him with a late honorary membership during the presidency of the former SS captain Helmut Bauer. In contrast, Robert Wartenberg (1886-1956) found a new neurological home at the University of California in San Francisco and published numerous books, some of which also attracted attention in the German translation. On various occasions, he opposed the remembrance of National Socialist injustice and even justified the "concurrent research" in conjunction with "euthanasia".

[" no reservations against the dismissals": the expulsion of neuroscientists from Berlin]. / " keinerlei Bedenken gegen die Entlassungen": die Vertreibung von Neurowissenschaftlerinnen und Neurowissenschaftlern aus Berlin.

Before 1933 Berlin was considered a center of clinical neurology and neuroscientific research in the German Reich. Using a group biographical approach and drawing upon scattered secondary literature as well as upon various archival documents, this article provides an overview of 12 less well-known physicians and researchers who were forced into exile during the nationalsocialist (NS) era, primarily for racist reasons. Among those affected by NS persecution were Franz Kramer and Fredy Quadfasel (Charité), Ernst Haase, Carl Felix List, and Lipman Halpern (Moabit Hospital), Paul Schuster (Hufeland Hospital), and Clemens Ernst Benda (Augusta Hospital). Others who were forced to emigrate were Franz Josef Kallmann (Herzberge Sanatorium), Max Bielschowsky, and Hans Löwenbach (Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Research), Otto Maas (Berlin-Buch Clinic), and Kurt Löwenstein (Lankwitz). A total of 6 neurological departments at municipal hospitals were run by (in NS terminology) "non-Aryans" in 1933. With their expulsion, the existence of neurological treatment and training centers outside the university ended and did not resume until the 1960s.

[Radicalization and "forced emigration": the dismissal and expulsion of neuroscientists and neuropsychiatrists from Vienna]. / Radikalisierung und "forcierte Emigration": die Entlassung und Vertreibung von Neurowissenschaftlern und Neuropsychiatern aus Wien.

Austria's so-called annexation (Anschluss) to Germany from March 1938 was followed by the ousting of "Jewish" doctors out of Vienna which happened faster and with more brutality than in the "Old Reich". According to National Socialist (NS) criteria, 92% of the neurologists at Vienna University were understood as being "non-Aryan". Victims of these expulsions were prominent figures, such as the head of the Neurological Institute Otto Marburg (1874-1949), a renowned multiple sclerosis researcher, and his pupil Ern(e)st Spiegel (1895-1985), a pioneer of stereotaxis. Similar to Berlin, nonuniversity departments of neurology were run by doctors who served as professors at the university, e.g., Josef Gerstmann (1878-1967) and his assistant Ilya Mark Scheinker (1902-1954). While these four continued their careers in the USA, the founder of neuroradiology Arthur Schüller (1874-1957) was able to flee to Australia. Hans Hoff (1897-1969) was part of the small group of returning emigrants, who in 1950 was appointed as the chair of psychiatry and neurology. The fate of the neurologists Ernst Sträussler (1872-1959) and Erwin Stransky (1877-1962) appears to be exceptional: both were dismissed and banned from teaching and practicing, but being married to "Aryan" wives spared them further persecution. Overall, within a short period of time neurology in Vienna lost a large number of its highly respected clinicians and researchers. Some of them refined their ideas and innovations abroad after 1945.

["Impossible to be part of this system any longer": the expulsion of neuroscientists from Frankfurt am Main (1933-1939)]. / "Impossible to be part of this system any longer": die Vertreibung von Neurowissenschaftlerinnen und Neurowissenschaftlern aus Frankfurt am Main (1933­1939).

In the 1920s, the situation of neuropsychiatry in Frankfurt was characterized by the rivalry between two institutions (Edinger Institute and University Neurology Clinic), two subdisciplines (neurology and psychiatry), and the physicians Kurt Goldstein (1878-1965) and Karl Kleist (1879-1960). After the National Socialists' assumption of power, university neuropsychiatric institutions in Frankfurt showed the highest number of dismissed university teachers and personnel in the German Reich. In neurology and psychiatry alone the university lost almost 50% of the personnel. Among those persecuted on racist grounds was Leo Alexander (1905-1985), who carried out genetic studies before 1933, prepared the "Alexander Reports" on behalf of the Allies after the Second World War, and was one of the prosecution counselors in the Nuremberg Doctors' Trial. His colleague Walther Riese (1890-1976) fled via France also to the USA and dedicated himself to the historical and ethical principles of neurology. Alice Rosenstein (1898-1991) was the first woman to specialize in neuroradiology and neurosurgery. In contrast to her male colleagues who were also dismissed in 1933, she committed herself to psychiatry after her arrival in North America and belonged to the early campaigners for the rights of homosexuals. Ernst (1905-1965) and Berta (1906-1995) Scharrer finally left Germany because of the prevailing political climate in the country. They excelled as co-founders of neuroendocrinology and neuroimmunology on the other side of the Atlantic.

[" without a visible sign of protest or at least solidarity from colleagues": the expulsion of neuroscientists from Hamburg]. / " ohne ein sichtbares Zeichen des Protestes oder wenigstens der Solidarität der Kollegen": die Vertreibung von Neurowissenschaftlern aus Hamburg.

In Hamburg, the National Socialists' racially motivated exclusion principally hit neurologists from two institutions: the Eppendorf Neurological Clinic (director until 1934 Max Nonne) and the Psychiatric and Neurological Clinic of Friedrichsberg State Hospital (director Wilhelm Weygandt). The chief physician of the neurological department of Barmbek Hospital, Heinrich Embden (1871-1941), who had been trained by Nonne, emigrated to Brazil, whereas Friedrich Wohlwill (1881-1958), another Nonne pupil who had been a pathologist at St Georg since 1924, lived for many years in Lisbon, before he found a new scientific home at the Harvard Medical School. The cerebrospinal fluid researcher Victor Kafka (1881-1955), a Freemason and intermittent member of the Communist Party, was briefly in so-called protective custody (Schutzhaft) in Fuhlsbüttel then fled via Norway to Sweden. Hermann Josephy (1887-1960) and Walter R. Kirschbaum (1894-1982), both imprisoned in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp after the November pogroms in 1938, could successfully continue their professional careers in Chicago. Richard Loewenberg (1898-1954) first opted to continue his career in China, then changed his mind and also went to the USA after the Japanese invasion. With the exception of the latter all were full members of the Society of German Neurologists. The broad scope of their research work clearly illustrates that in addition to clinical core competence, former neurologists could intensively follow scientific interests in the neighboring disciplines of pathology, serology, and psychiatry.

["There are no worthy life opportunities from a human, professional or scientific viewpoint": expelled neurologists outside the centers of German-speaking neuroscience]. / "Weder menschlich noch beruflich, noch wissenschaftlich würdige Lebensmöglichkeiten": vertriebene Neurologen außerhalb der Zentren der deutschsprachigen Neurowissenschaft.

The persecution and expulsion of German-speaking neurologists were not limited to research centers, such as Berlin, Vienna, Frankfurt am Main and Hamburg. The exclusion from science, teaching and clinical care also occurred at other (university) sites. The different aspects and implementation of the exclusion are presented here exemplified by 10 physicians involved in neuroscience. These ranged from forced internal emigration (Georg Stertz/Kiel), racially motivated removal from office (Max Isserlin and Karl Neubürger/both Munich, Ernst Grünthal/Würzburg, Gabriel Steiner/Heidelberg, Rudolf Altschul and Francis Schiller/both Prague) to publicly staged denunciation and humiliation (Otto Löwenstein/Bonn). Furthermore, without being directly persecuted themselves, individual physicians reacted to the poisoned political and academic climate in that they either sooner or later left their homeland (Eduard Heinrich Krapf/Cologne, Hartwig Kuhlenbeck/Jena). The results and conclusions summarized in this article for university clinics and institutes represent only a narrow section of the neurological scene in 1933-1939; however, they emphasize how necessary an expansion of the historical research perspective is on the fate of neurologists at communal hospitals, in field practices and other professional areas.

["We have to get rid of the Jews, either way": victims of violence among the neuroscientists]. / "Mit den Juden muß so oder so Schluß gemacht werden": Gewaltopfer unter den Neurowissenschaftlerinnen und Neurowissenschaftlern.

Neurologists as victims of National Socialist extermination policies have been rarely addressed as a special group in historical research. On the basis of archival documents and biographical literature, this essay presents 9 exemplary fates of a group of victims of violence whose number and structure so far cannot be estimated. These neurologists died in the ghettos of Lwów (e.g. Lucja Frey) and Theresienstadt (Alexander Spitzer/Vienna), were murdered in the concentration or extermination camps of Mauthausen (e.g. Raphael Weichbrodt/Frankfurt, Hans Pollnow/Berlin) and Auschwitz (e.g. Otto Sittig/Prague), or were executed in the East (e.g. Arthur Simons/Berlin). Others whose attempts to emigrate failed or whose deportation was imminent, chose to commit suicide. This group included the neuroserologist Felix Plaut (Munich), the encephalitis researcher Felix Stern (Göttingen), and presumably Fritz Chotzen (Breslau). In all these cases it was an eponym or a relationship to university medicine that prompted the investigations; however, the fate of innumerable colleagues employed in communal departments and medical practices remains unknown to date. Future studies will have to undertake a deeper look at the suffering of neuroscientists who perished in the Holocaust.

[Persecution, expulsion and extermination of German-speaking neurologists during the NS era: attempt at an assessment]. / Verfolgung, Vertreibung und Vernichtung deutschsprachiger Neurologinnen und Neurologen während der NS-Zeit: Versuch einer Bewertung.

Some 90 years after the beginning of the Nazi regime, the German Neurological Society (DGN) commissioned an investigation into the extent to which persecution, expulsion and extermination during the "Third Reich" also affected neurologists. In total, the biographies of 61 mostly Jewish physicians and scientists, of whom more than 70% were members of the neurological association of the time, could be analyzed. Most of them emigrated, a few remained in Germany or Austria despite persecution, and nine died in the Holocaust or by suicide. The racistically motivated expulsion affected all age groups, especially those who were 30-60 years old in "middle" positions. In close connection with Nazi legislation, three waves of emigration can be distinguished (1933-1934, 1935-1937, 1938-1939) and the clearly preferred destination country was the USA (64.7%). Younger age, knowledge of a universal language, reliable family and academic connections as well as internationally recognized publications, could make it easier to start a career in the country of exile. It was not uncommon for those who were involved in neurological fields before emigration to turn to basic science or psychiatry afterwards. The general "brain-drain"/"brain gain" hypothesis must be expanded by analyses on the biographical microlevel in order to illustrate the difficulties emigrants encountered when trying to start a new career and to publicize a sometimes unsuccessful acculturation. Not a single neurologist returned to Germany and, as far as can be assessed, any compensation, if at all was low. The critical assessment of the racistically motivated persecution between 1933 and 1945 can today be an occasion for the DGN and its members to reflect on collegiality as a value as well as to become more aware of structurally related discrimination and injustice and to counteract it in a timely manner.

[A researcher and physician who gained international fame: Otfrid Foerster (1873-1941) as Nobel Prize candidate]. / "Ein zu internationaler Berühmtheit gelangter Forscher und Arzt": Otfrid Foerster (1873­1941) als Nobelpreiskandidat.

This paper discusses the 17 Nobel Prize nominations for the neurologist and neurosurgeon Otfrid Foerster (1873-1941). Drawing on files from the Stockholm Nobel Prize Archive, primary and secondary literature, it addresses the following questions: what were the reasons given by nominators for Foerster's nominations? What was the relationship between him and his nominators? Why was he ultimately not awarded the Nobel Prize? Most nominators of Foerster's highlighted as the main motive his Handbuch der Neurologie, which he had edited with Oswald Bumke. According to the nominators, this book together with Foerster's neurosurgical work had an enormous impact on contemporary neurology. Furthermore, his "honorable character" was underlined in the nomination letters; however, these reasons were not sufficient for the Nobel Committee: the members classified the handbook as not being original research. Despite this, Foerster's fame is reflected in the present, for example in the Otfrid Foerster Medal, which has been awarded to researchers by the German Society of Neurosurgery since 1953.

"He Gave Us the Cornerstone of Sexual Medicine": A Nobel Plan but No Nobel Prize for Eugen Steinach.

This paper reviews the files in the archive of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine on the Austrian physiologist and pioneering researcher in the emerging fields of urology and sexual medicine: Eugen Steinach (1861-1944). It reconstructs and analyzes why and by whom Steinach was nominated for the Nobel Prize between 1920 and 1938 and discusses the reasons why he never received the award, although the Nobel Committee judged him as prizeworthy. Steinach's Nobel nominee career is extraordinary - not only because of his strong support by renowned international nominators from different scientific and medical disciplines, but also because of the controversial discussions within the Nobel Committee on his achievements, colored by the debates in the international scientific community. The Nobel Prize story adds a new perspective on how contemporary international scholars evaluated Steinach's research on reproduction, "male-making" females, "female-making" males, homosexuality, and the concept of rejuvenation.

[Neurologists and neuroscientists: who was a Nazi? Changing perspectives on NS incrimination in the history of German medicine]. / Neurologen und Neurowissenschaftler: Wer war ein Nazi? Zum Umgang mit der NS-Belastung in der Geschichte der deutschen Medizin.

The German Neurological Society (DGN) instigated an investigation into potential incrimination of some of the previous leading members regarding their Nazi involvement. The persons in question include former (honorary) presidents and honorary members of the DGN (or the predecessor organizations) and the name givers of prizes awarded by the DGN. This introduction to the following biographies explains the difficulties and the broad discretionary leeway needed to establish an involvement in Nazi activities going beyond justiciable crimes against humanity on the basis of formal criteria (e.g. membership in the NSDAP and/or other NS organizations, involvement in Nazi crimes) and/or substantive indications (e.g. statements advocating the NS ideology, personal contacts to Nazi functionaries, active support of the system). A longitudinal analysis from 1945 until the present day reveals time-related variations in assessing who and why someone was considered to be a Nazi. A current overview of historical projects initiated by medical societies in Germany demonstrates that the endeavor of the DGN to deal with its Nazi involvement will be an integral part of the interdisciplinary "culture to cope with the past" of medical associations. Finally, it should be borne in mind that the fabric of history consists of a different material than clinical medicine or its natural scientific foundations. Checklists or scores for measuring NS involvement thus cannot and will not exist. Instead, balanced historical interpretations are needed as attempted by the biographical reconstructions presented in this volume.

[Max Nonne (1861-1959) and his attitude towards "euthanasia"]. / Max Nonne (1861­1959) und seine Einstellung zur "Euthanasie".

Max Nonne, an internationally renowned German neurologist, acted from 1918 to 1924 as president of the (first) Society of German Neurologists (GDN). Appointed honorary president in 1925, he held this position in the (second) German Neurological Society (DGN) until his death. Since 1961, this association has honored 16 neurologists with a commemorative medal named after Nonne. His outstanding findings in various fields of neurology are uncontested and some of them live on as eponyms (Nonne-Apelt syndrome, Nonne-Froin syndrome, Nonne-Milroy-Meige syndrome); however, recent archival studies and an analysis of individual publications deeply darkened the image of the "grey eminence" of German neurology. Records kept at the Hamburg State Archive prove that in a memorandum from 1941/1942 following the example of Binding and Hoche, Nonne firmly approved the killing of "life absolutely unworthy of living". In a report addressed to the District Court of Hamburg he attested in 1946 that many physicians charged with manslaughter acted in accordance with the regulations governing "child euthanasia", resulting in the withdrawal of the accusation. In a further statement from 1949 he confirmed that the killing of children and the "euthanasia program" during the NS era were consistent with the state of medical science. An earlier book chapter authored by Nonne immediately after World War I suggested that his social-Darwinistically colored concept of mankind was developed clearly before the Nazi era. Notwithstanding the arrangement to which he came with the new powers after 1933 and his acceptance of tributes to him by them, he repeatedly stood up for his Jewish colleagues. He was never a Nazi, nevertheless, he engaged in activities that fostered NS "euthanasia" going far beyond a "mentality of approval".