Gender Typicality, Pressure to Conform to Gender Norms, and Anti-Fat and Appearance Stereotypes in Girls.

This mixed-methods study investigated the relation among gender identity (i.e., self-perceived gender similarity to girls and boys; self-perceived parental and peer pressure to conform to gender norms) and stereotyping about weight (i.e., anti-fat stereotypes), weight change, and appearance in 83 girls ages 6-9 (Mage = 7.60 years, SD = .85; 65% White, 16% Mixed/Other, 11% Black, 8% Latina) in the U.S. Stereotypes about weight change were assessed with open-ended responses (i.e., qualitatively), and the rest of the constructs were assessed with closed-ended responses (i.e., quantitatively). There was a positive association between pressure from parents to conform to gender norms and appearance stereotypes, and between pressure from peers and negative stereotypes about the fat and thin figures. Girls who were more gender typical, or more similar to girls, were more likely to endorse appearance stereotypes. There was no significant relation among stereotypes about weight change and gender identity. Many girls deemed the fat figure as unattractive, physically restrained, unhealthy, and likely to be bullied and believed that the fat figure should change back to look like a thinner figure. Most girls were aware that exercising, eating healthy, and dietary restriction can lead to weight loss and that food consumption and lack of exercise can lead to weight gain. Findings suggest that certain aspects of weight (anti-fat) and appearance stereotypes are closely linked to gender identity in girls, whereas other aspects of weight stereotypes (e.g., stereotypes about weight change) are so pervasive that they are common in most girls, regardless of their gender identity.

The link between early adolescents' gender discrimination and gender attitudes about peers: Does gender similarity matter?

Gender is one of the most salient social identities, particularly during early adolescence. However, factors related to adolescents' gender attitudes remain underexamined. We examined links between adolescents' gender discrimination, felt-gender similarity, and intergroup gender attitudes. Participants were 270 adolescents in the United States (Mage = 12.95 years, SD = 1.33; 47.4% adolescent girls; 63.7% White, 12.2% Latinx, 10.7% Black, 4.1% Asian, 5.6% multiracial, and 3% indigenous). Path analyses showed that gender discrimination negatively predicted adolescents' attitudes towards own- and other-gender peers. Felt own-gender similarity positively predicted own-gender attitudes as expected, but other-gender similarity did not predict other-gender attitudes. Further, own- and other-gender similarity did not interact to predict adolescents' gender attitudes. However, adolescents' attitudes towards other-gender peers were more negatively impacted by gender discrimination for those who felt highly similar to own-gender peers than for those with average or low own-gender similarity. Findings inform potential strategies to improve adolescents' gender attitudes.

Critical consciousness in children and adolescents: A systematic review, critical assessment, and recommendations for future research.

Critical consciousness refers to an individual's awareness of oppressive systemic forces in society, a sense of efficacy to work against oppression, and engagement in individual or collective action against oppression. In the past few decades, interest in critical consciousness as a resource that may promote thriving in marginalized people has grown tremendously. This article critically examines the results of a systematic review of 67 studies of critical consciousness in children and adolescents, published between 1998 and 2019. Across these studies, major themes included the role of socialization experiences, relationships, and context in the development of critical consciousness. In addition, critical consciousness was associated with a number of adaptive developmental outcomes, including career-related, civic, social-emotional, and academic outcomes-especially for marginalized youth. However, our analysis highlights several critical gaps in the literature. We highlight the need for further delineation of the impacts of parent and peer socialization on critical consciousness in specific developmental periods and for studying critical consciousness at multiple levels of the ecological system. We further note the dearth of rigorous experimental or quasi-experimental studies in the area of interventions to promote critical consciousness. In addition, we note that developmental questions-questions about the nature and function of critical consciousness over time-are largely unanswered in the literature, including questions about how critical consciousness manifests and develops during childhood. Leveraging the findings of our systematic review, we outline key next steps for this rapidly growing area of research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).