General classification of rhinopaties: the need for standardization according to etiology and nasal cytology.

BACKGROUND: Rhinitis is as an inflammation of the nasal mucosa, characterized by high prevalence, widespread morbidity, and a significant financial burden on health care systems. Nevertheless, it is often considered as no more than a mere annoyance. This point of view has progressively led to underestimate and trivialize the disease. Therefore, there are numerous, mostly overlapping classifications of rhinopaties, but clear and standardized guidelines for diagnosis and treatment are still lacking. In the context of Precision Medicine, the development of a classification system focused on the endotypes of rhinitis to be widely adopted appears of utmost importance, also by virtue of study of the nasal immunophlogosis that, thanks to nasal cytology (NC), has recently allowed to better define the different forms of rhinitis, giving a new nosological dignity to several rhinopaties. AIM: We aimed to summarize the current knowledge regarding rhinitis and to propose a systematic classification of rhinitis, based on both etiology and cytological findings.

Decreased bone cortical density at the forearm in subjects with subclinical peripheral arterial disease.

UNLABELLED: The association between peripheral arterial disease (PAD) and low bone mass is controversial. In our study, peripheral quantitative computed tomography shows a reduction of cortical but not trabecular, bone mineral density (BMD) at the forearm, in patients with subclinical PAD. INTRODUCTION: Some controversy exists regarding the association between peripheral arterial disease (PAD) and low bone mass. Previous studies have evaluated bone mineral density (BMD) in patients with subclinical PAD, with mixed results. Inconsistency of data may depend on the fact that most studies measured areal bone mineral density (aBMD) by Dual-energy-x ray absorptiometry (DXA). Because DXA cannot distinguish between cortical and trabecular compartments, we reasoned that a study aimed to establish whether these compartments were differentially affected by PAD status could give more information on the nature of this association. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, we used peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) to examine volumetric cortical and trabecular mineral density at the radius (vBMD) in a cohort of subjects with subclinical PAD as defined by ABI ≤0.90 and compared them with healthy subjects with no evidence of PAD. RESULTS: Patients with subclinical PAD had significantly reduced cortical density (1101.0 ± 45.4 vs 1156.2 ± 51.3 mg/cm(3), p < 0.001) and cortical area (75.0 ± 20.9 vs 99.9 ± 18.2 mm(2), p < 0.001) than healthy subjects. Trabecular density (178.1 ± 47.9 vs 165.8 ± 29.6 mg/cm(3)) was not significantly different in the two groups. CONCLUSION: Subclinical PAD induces a selective bone loss at the radius compartment, not identified by standard DXA, which seems to occur primarily at the cortical level.

The current and future off-label uses of dalbavancin: a narrative review.

Dalbavancin is a novel long-acting semi-synthetic lipoglycopeptide. It is licensed for acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections (ABSSSI) caused by susceptible Gram-positive bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Many studies on dalbavancin alternative use in clinical practice have been published recently, including osteomyelitis, prosthetic joint infections (PJIs), and infective endocarditis (IE). Thus, we conducted a narrative review on dalbavancin efficacy in difficult-to-treat infections, such as osteomyelitis, PJIs, and IE. We performed a comprehensive literature search through electronic databases (PubMed-MEDLINE) and search engines (Google Scholar). We included peer-reviewed publications (articles and reviews), and grey literature on dalbavancin use in osteomyelitis, PJIs, and IE. No time or language restrictions have been established. Despite the great interest in clinical practice, only observational studies and case series on the use of dalbavancin in infections other than ABSSSI are available. The reported success rate was extremely variable between studies, ranging from 44% to 100%. A low success rate has been reported for osteomyelitis and joint infections, while in endocarditis, the success rate was higher than 70% in all studies. However, there is no literature agreement about the correct regimen of dalbavancin for this type of infection heretofore. Dalbavancin showed great efficacy and a good safety profile, not only in patients with ABSSSI but also in those with osteomyelitis, PJIs, and endocarditis. Further randomized clinical trials are needed to assess the optimal dosing schedule depending on the site of infection. Implementing therapeutic drug monitoring for dalbavancin may represent the future step to achieving optimal pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic target attainment.

Is oral antibiotic therapy as effective as intravenous treatment in bacterial osteomyelitis? A real-life experience.

OBJECTIVE: Osteomyelitis is a relatively understudied disease with no standardized and evidence-based approach to treatment. We aimed to evaluate a cohort of patients with osteomyelitis, comparing the outcomes between intravenous (IV) and oral treatment. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We performed an observational retrospective study on osteomyelitis cases in adult patients seen for care between 2017 and 2019. We collected information on patient characteristics, microbiological etiology, infection treatment, and outcome. In addition, we divided osteomyelitis cases by antibiotic regimens [oral (OTG) vs. intravenous±oral (ITG)] and therapy durations to evaluate outcomes differences. RESULTS: A total of 235 episodes of osteomyelitis were evaluated, with a higher prevalence in male gender. Staphylococci, especially S. aureus, were the most common strains. Out of the 235 evaluated episodes, we selected 142 cases. Of these, 75 were treated with OTG and 67 with ITG. Gram-positive bacteria were the most frequent aetiological agents, with 81 isolates (61.8%). Full recovery was observed in 79 (55.6%) cases; of these, 36 (53.7%) were in the ITG and 43 (57.3%) in the OTG (p = 0.666). At the logistic regression, a polymicrobial infection [OR 4.16 (95%CI 1.28-13.4), p = 0.017] and a less than six weeks treatment duration [OR 4.24 (95%CI 1.38-5.43) p = 0.004] were significantly associated with a higher risk of treatment failure. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that oral treatment efficacy is comparable to ITG therapy for osteomyelitis, confirming the most recent evidence suggesting that oral therapy is non-inferior to intravenous therapy to treat osteomyelitis.

Effects of long-term hormone replacement therapy: results from a cohort study.

The positive effects of hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) in protecting the cardiovascular system in women have been supported by several observational studies, while also being questioned by other randomized controlled trials. Today, it is unclear whether HRT plays a crucial role, or even whether there is any role at all, for this therapy in preventing or in lowering cardiovascular disease (CVD). In the present study, we have evaluated the effectiveness of long-term HRT in post-menopausal women on the incidence of cardiovascular events and arterial remodeling, as well as on some metabolic factors. Eighty-four post-menopausal women (mean age: 46.3 ± 5.2; age range: 42-66 yr) underwent HRT for 10.9 ± 1.2 yr (range: 8-12 yr). None of these subjects showed new cardiovascular events, and we found a reduction of the intima-media thickness (baseline: 1.39 ± 0.2, 1.35 ± 0.2, 1.31 ± 0.2 mm) and total cholesterol, LDL and antithrombin III levels were lower, while HDL and fibrinogen levels increased. The study highlights a number of positive effects both on vascular conditions and metabolic and coagulative markers that are usually considered as generic and crucial risk factors for CVD. The relatively low number of patients is perhaps a limitation of this study, however, the long-term period of followup should be considered an interesting and important factor. Furthermore, this study underlines the real-life clinical experience of a Menopause Center.

A 'chemical help' in middle-ear surgery? A systematic review on sodium 2-mercaptoethanesulfonate.

OBJECTIVE: Sodium 2-mercaptoethanesulfonate (Mesna) has been proposed as a chemical aid in any surgical procedure, including cholesteatoma surgery. This review investigated the benefits and safety of Mesna during surgical management of cholesteatoma and adhesive otitis media. METHOD: A systematic literature review was performed to identify clinical studies evaluating topical Mesna application during ear surgery (cholesteatoma or atelectasis). A qualitative analysis based on data extracted was conducted. RESULTS: From 27 articles, 5 retrospective studies were selected for a full analysis for a total of 607 patients (aged 5 to 72 years). Three studies evaluated cholesteatoma recidivism after Mesna application during cholesteatoma surgery, one study evaluated the surgical success rate of Mesna application for the treatment of atelectatic ears and adhesive otitis media, and one study evaluated potential ototoxicity of Mesna during cholesteatoma surgery. All the studies showed overall improvement in recurrence and residual cholesteatoma disease after Mesna application during surgery. Sensorineural hearing loss was not encountered after Mesna application. CONCLUSION: Mesna application in cholesteatoma surgery could represent a valid and safe support tool during surgical treatment carried out both with microscopy and endoscopy. More studies are required to confirm these promising results.

Does Angiotensin II receptor blockers increase the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection? A real-life experience.

OBJECTIVE: Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, millions of people have been infected with thousands of deaths. Few data regarding factors that increase the risk of infection are available. Our study aimed to evaluate all people living in retirement homes (PLRNH) and identify factors that could increase infection risk in a close community. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study enrolling all PLRNH, where at least one SARS-CoV-2 infected person was present. Variables were compared with Student's t-test or Pearson chi-square test as appropriate. Uni- and multivariate analyses were conducted to evaluate variables' influence on the infection. RESULTS: We included 452 PLRNH; 144 (31.7%) were male, with a mean age of 82.2±8.6 years. People with a positive swab for SARS-CoV-2 were 306 (67.4%). A significant difference between SARS-CoV-2 infected and not infected was observed in the percentage of those receiving chronic treatment with Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) (18.6% vs. 9.5%, p=0.012). On the contrary, there was no difference in the proportion of those receiving ACE inhibitors (ACE-I) (21.2% vs. 23.6%, p=0.562). At multivariate analysis, people with mental illness and cancer had an increased risk of being infected. Furthermore, receiving ARBs as a chronic treatment was an independent predictor of infection risk [OR 1.95 (95% CI 1.03-3.72) p=0.041]. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that, in close communities, such as retirement nursing homes, the receipt of ARBs increased the risk of acquiring SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, before changing an important chronic treatment in a fragile population, such as the elderly living in retirement nursing homes, clinicians should carefully evaluate the risk-benefit ratio.

Systemic inflammatory markers and psychophysical olfactory scores in coronavirus disease 2019 patients: is there any correlation?

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the correlations between olfactory psychophysical scores and the serum levels of D-dimer, C-reactive protein, ferritin, lactate dehydrogenase, procalcitonin and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio in coronavirus disease 2019 patients. METHODS: Patients underwent psychophysical olfactory assessment with the Connecticut Chemosensory Clinical Research Center test, and determination of blood serum levels of the inflammatory markers D-dimer, C-reactive protein, ferritin, lactate dehydrogenase, procalcitonin and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio within 10 days of the clinical onset of coronavirus disease 2019 and 60 days after. RESULTS: Seventy-seven patients were included in this study. D-dimer, procalcitonin, ferritin and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio correlated significantly with severe coronavirus disease 2019. No significant correlations were found between baseline and 60-day Connecticut Chemosensory Clinical Research Center test scores and the inflammatory markers assessed. CONCLUSION: Olfactory disturbances appear to have little prognostic value in predicting the severity of coronavirus disease 2019 compared to D-dimer, ferritin, procalcitonin and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio. The lack of correlation between the severity and duration of olfactory disturbances and serum levels of inflammatory markers seems to further suggest that the pathogenetic mechanisms underlying the loss of smell in coronavirus disease 2019 patients are related to local rather than systemic inflammatory factors.

COVID-19: Effects of lockdown on adenotonsillar hypertrophy and related diseases in children.

BACKGROUND: In response to the coronavirus pandemic 2019 (COVID-19), Italy established the national school closings from March 5, 2020. It has been shown that during school closures, there are significant decreases in the diagnoses of the respiratory infections. This has brought as well to a reduction in all those symptoms related to adenotonsillar hypertrophy. METHODS: The study included 162 children, aged between 3 and 13 years, waiting for adenoidectomy and/or tonsillectomy, eventually combined with tympanocentesis or tube insertion. Parents have been called to answer a telephone interview aimed at detecting how the symptoms related to adenotonsillar hypertrophy were changing during lockdown. RESULTS: There was an improvement in the overall symptomatology of children during the lockdown period. The value attributed by parents to the children's general assessment during the lockdown period decreased significatively during the quarantine (p = 0,0000). CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates that lockdown can have a positive impact on those specific diseases derived from precocious socialization and that it results to be particularly effective for the most vulnerable children. Indeed, lockdown has resulted to be so efficient that it has caused a modification in a medical and surgical therapeutic indication.

Clinical features, laboratory findings and predictors of death in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Sardinia, Italy.

OBJECTIVE: Since December 2019, when the first SARS-CoV2 infections have been reported, the number of cases has increased exponentially. In our University Hospital Unit, the first patient with COVID-19 was admitted on the 8th of March 2020. We aimed to investigate the predictors of death among inpatients with COVID-19. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed a retrospective, monocentric study, consecutively enrolling patients with SARS-CoV2 infection. Clinical, laboratory, and radiological data were collected from the 8th of March to the 8th of April 2020. We aimed to describe the most frequent clinical and laboratory features and predictors of death among patients admitted to our Unit. RESULTS: 87 patients were enrolled, 56 (64.4%) were male, with a median age of 72 (IQR 62.5-83.5) years. The majority of our population had at least one comorbidity in their medical anamnesis. Hypertension and cardiovascular disease were the most frequent, followed by obesity. Eighty (92%) patients had at least one symptom, whereas 7 (8%) were asymptomatic. The most common symptoms were fever and dyspnoea. Overall, 53 patients had lung disease confirmed at CT scan (60.9%). Twenty-five (28.7%) deaths occurred. Statistically significant predictors of death at multivariate analysis were lymphocytes count <900 cells/mm3, moderate ARDS, and lack of compliance at baseline. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first Italian experience available. Our results seem to be in line with international literature. As highlighted by our data, more studies are needed to investigate the role of lymphocytes subsets, CT scan values. Furthermore, therapy choice and timing in this challenging setting should be urgently investigated in randomized clinical trials.

Vaccination coverage in healthcare workers: a multicenter cross-sectional study in Italy.

INTRODUCTION: In recent years, a phenomenon known as "vaccine hesitancy" has spread throughout the world, even among health workers, determining a reduction in vaccination coverage (VC).A study aimed at evaluating VC among healthcare workers (HCWs) in 10 Italian cities (L'Aquila, Genoa, Milan, Palermo, Sassari, Catanzaro, Ferrara, Catania, Naples, Messina) was performed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Annex 3 of the Presidential Decree n. 445 of 28 December 2000 was used to collect information on the vaccination status of HCWs. The mean and standard deviation (SD) were calculated with regard to the quantitative variable (age), while absolute and relative frequencies were obtained for categorical data (sex, professional profile, working sector, vaccination status). The connection between VC and the categorical variables was evaluated by chi-square method (statistical significance at p < 0.05). The statistical analyses were performed by SPSS and Stata software. RESULTS: A total of 3,454 HCWs participated in the project: 1,236 males and 2,218 females.The sample comprised: physicians (26.9%), trainee physicians (16.1%), nurses (17.2%) and other professional categories (9.8%). Low VC was generally recorded. Higher VC was found with regard to polio, hepatitis B, tetanus and diphtheria, while coverage was very low for measles, mumps, rubella, pertussis, chickenpox and influenza (20-30%). CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed low VC rates among HCWs for all the vaccinations. Measures to increase VC are therefore necessary in order to prevent HCWs from becoming a source of transmission of infections with high morbidity and/or mortality both within hospitals and outside.

Polymorphisms of steroid 5-alpha-reductase type I (SRD5A1) gene are associated to peripheral arterial disease.

Although animal studies support the hypothesis that androgenic biological actions may affect experimental atherosclerosis progression, evidence for a relationship between androgen effects and peripheral arterial disease (PAD), a common clinical form of atherosclerosis, is weak or contradictory. Testosterone, the main androgen hormone, is converted in a 5alpha-reduced form by enzymatic activities in the target cells and some specific actions are mediated by such metabolites. Steroid 5-alpha reductase isoenzymes (SRD5A1 and SRD5A2) catalyze the conversion to the bioactive potent androgen dihydrotestosterone and other reduced metabolites and represent relevant regulators of local hormonal actions. In the present study we tested for the association of selected single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) of SRD5A1 and SRD5A2 with symptomatic PAD patients. Two different SNP in the SRD5A1 were significantly associated which the PAD phenotype (p<0.03, odds ratio 1.73), while no association was found between PAD phenotypes and SRD5A2. Since the examined SRDA1 gene variant was previously associated with a low enzymatic activity, we suggest that a decreased local enzymatic conversion of testosterone may contribute to PAD genetic susceptibility.

Use of oxycodone in polytrauma patients: the "Gemelli" experience.

INTRODUCTION: This is the first study investigating the effect of oxycodone in polytrauma patients. The management of pain in polytrauma patients has become a very relevant issue. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) represent the most used drugs in polytrauma patients, even though their use is associated with an increased hemorrhagic risk. Previous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of oxycodone for the treatment of acute pain. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of oxycodone administration in polytrauma patients, with minor injuries. PATIENTS AND METHODS: 15 polytrauma patients (10 males, mean age 40 +/- 13 years; 5 females, mean age 49 +/- 26 years) were admitted to the Emergency Department of the Catholic University, A. Gemelli Hospital in Rome, Italy. All patients underwent physical examination, FAST ultrasound, total body CT scanning and blood tests. Three patients had multiple costal fractures, three had pelvic fracture, two had tibial fracture, five had vertebral fractures, one patient had clavicle fracture and ulnar fracture, one patient a severe trauma of the left leg, which required amputation. Five patients also reported minor head trauma, with a Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) 15. All patients reported abdominal trauma, while none of them had severe thoracic or kidney damage. Patients with head trauma also underwent a second CT head scanning 12 hours after admission, which excluded the occurrence of cerebral damage. All patients were then treated with oral administration of oxycodone 10 mg two times per day (bid) for 3 days. Pain intensity, before and after the administration of oxycodone, was evaluated using a scale ranging from 0 to 10. RESULTS: The mean pain score at admission was 8 +/- 0.7. All patients reported significant pain improvement after the administration of oxycodone (8 +/- 0.7 vs 1.8 +/- 0.9; p < 0.0001). A dosage increase of oxycodone from 20 to 40 mg bid was required in only one patient with a clavicle fracture. The main side effects were light-headache (5 patients), constipation (4 patients) and nausea (3 patients). CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that oxycodone is a safe and effective drug for pain relief in polytrauma patients without severe thoracic, kidney or brain damage.

The additional role of 18F-FDG PET/CT in prosthetic valve endocarditis.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the present review is an update on the diagnosis of prosthetic valve endocarditis (PVE), evaluating the additional value of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography (18F-FDG PET/CT) to the standard modified DUKE criteria on which for a long time is based the diagnostic strategy of the disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We did a comprehensive research on the studies reported in the literature and regarding the employment of 18F-FDG PET/CT in the early diagnosis of PVE in patients with suspected disease. Scientific databases have been examined such as Medline and PubMed, followed by a review of citations and reference lists. The research included the following terms: infective endocarditis, prosthetic heart valve and cardiac valve replacement infections, 18F-FDG PET/CT and endocarditis. RESULTS: The recent studies reported in the literature on the PVE diagnostic approaches showed elevated sensitivity and specificity values of 18F-FDG PET/CT ranging from 73 to 96.6% and from 80 to 94%, respectively, reducing the number of misdiagnosed patients. The usefulness of the radioisotopic procedure is even more important when the other diagnostic conventional diagnostic tools, such as echocardiography, are inconclusive or negative in patients in whom the diagnosis of PVE is definitively ascertained. However, false negative and positive results of 18F-FDG PET/CT were also ascertained in some studies interfering with image interpretation even if such limitation can be reduced with an adequate patient preparation, with a better knowledge of clinical course of the disease, of the treatment in progress and of the different technical aspects of the method. CONCLUSIONS: In different studies reported in the literature, 18F-FDG PET/CT proved to improve the diagnostic accuracy of the conventional modified DUKE criteria in patients with suspected IE, and in particular with PVE, giving the highest diagnostic performance and providing additional diagnostic benefits. Thus, the radioisotopic hybrid procedure should be included in the diagnostic protocol of PVE as complementary tool to modified DUKE criteria. Finally, the usefulness of 18F-FDG PET/CT in monitoring the response to antibiotic therapy, although the few data reported in the literature are encouraging, needs more numerous studies and with a major number of cases.

Body fat changes in HIV patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART): a longitudinal DEXA study.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to quantitatively evaluate body fat composition in a group of HIV patients treated with Highly Active Anti-retroviral Therapy (HAART) to ascertain both fat loss and fat distribution changes and to identify possible therapeutic and host related associated risk factors. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 180 patients with available total body DEXA scan were assigned to a) Group 1, with clinically evident body fat changes, (BFC) and b) Group 2, without BFC. Clinical and immunovirologic data were collected. We used Student t-test and x2 or Fisher exact test to compare the characteristics of the two groups. Paired t-test was used to compare basal and follow-up data. The relationships between variables were evaluated by calculating Pearson's correlation coefficient and its significance. RESULTS: HAART duration was significantly (p<0.0001) higher for patients in Group 1 than in Group 2, as well as PI (p<0.02) and NRTI (p<0.002) therapy duration. Current CD4 count and CD4 rise from nadir resulted significantly higher in Group 1 than in Group 2 (p<0.02 and 0.006, respectively). Whole Body Fat (WBF), Peripheral Fat (PF) and Leg (L) fat negatively correlated with PI and NRTI therapy duration, while Trunk Fat (TF)/PF positively correlated with PI and NNRTI duration. No significant correlation was found, instead, with NNRTI therapy duration. At 5-year follow-up, we registered a further increase in TF, Arms (A) and L fat, especially in PI-treated patients. CONCLUSIONS: Body fat changes should always be considered when dealing with HIV-affected patients on HAART. The fat loss seemed to involve mainly peripheral regions, while fat accumulation tendency occurred in the trunk.

The basal to total insulin ratio in outpatients with diabetes on basal-bolus regimen.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the basal/total ratio of daily insulin dose (b/T) in outpatients with diabetes type 1 (DM1) and type 2 (DM2) on basal-bolus regimen, by investigating whether there is a relationship with HbA1c and episodes of hypoglycemia. METHODS: Multicentric, observational, cross-sectional study in Italy. Adult DM1 (n = 476) and DM2 (n = 541) outpatients, with eGFR >30 mL/min/1.73 m2, on a basal-bolus regimen for at least six months, were recruited from 31 Italian Diabetes services between March and September 2016. Clinicaltrials.govID: NCT03489031. RESULTS: Total daily insulin dose was significantly higher in DM2 patients (52.3 ± 22.5 vs. 46 ± 20.9 U/day), but this difference disappeared when insulin doses were normalized for body weight. The b/T ratio was lower than 0.50 in both groups: 0.46 ± 0.14 in DM1 and 0.43 ± 0.15 in DM2 patients (p = 0.0011). The b/T was significantly higher in the patients taking metformin in both groups, and significantly different according to the type of basal insulin (Degludec, 0.48 in DM1 and 0.44 in DM2; Glargine, 0.44 in DM1 and 0.43 in DM2; Detemir, 0.45 in DM1 and 0.39 in DM2). The b/T ratio was not correlated in either group to HbA1c or incidence of hypoglycemia (<40 mg/dL, or requiring caregiver intervention, in the last three months). In the multivariate analysis, metformin use and age were independent predictors of the b/T ratio in both DM1 and DM2 patients, while the type of basal insulin was an independent predictor only in DM1. CONCLUSION: The b/T ratio was independent of glycemic control and incidence of hypoglycemia.

Correction to: The basal to total insulin ratio in outpatients with diabetes on basal-bolus regimen.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1007/s40200-018-0358-2.].

Underserved populations and bacterial and protozoal sexually transmitted infections: a lost health-care opportunity.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of our review is an update about the burden of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among various types of underserved populations, such as migrants, substance abusers, homeless and incarcerated inmates. First-line test and treatment based on the latest available evidence according to the revised guidelines of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have also been considered. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed a comprehensive research using scientific databases such as Medline and Pubmed, followed by a review of citations and reference list. A consultation with other experts in the management of the various subpopulations was also conducted. RESULTS: Health-care is often influenced by social determinants, which play a vital role in the diffusion of STIs. The consequence is a socio-economical and ethnic disparity in the rate of STIs. Early screening and treatment of STIs should be implemented in clinical practice, starting from marginalized social groups, which are the most affected by this health problem. CONCLUSIONS: In the literature, there are very few papers containing information on STIs prevalence in various types of underserved populations, such as migrants, substance abusers, homeless and incarcerated inmates. The availability of more accurate epidemiological data is needed. In these groups, the most relevant barrier is the lower perception of health-care need, with an underestimation of risk and symptoms of STIs, causing a retard of diagnosis and health-care provision and use. For these populations, targeted interventions are needed, particularly on unaware people, responsible for most STIs transmissions.