Sca-1 expression defines developmental stages of mouse pDCs that show functional heterogeneity in the endosomal but not lysosomal TLR9 response.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) play an important role in innate and adaptive immunity and were shown to be identical to previously described natural interferon (IFN)-α-producing cells. Here, we describe two functionally distinct pDC subpopulations that are characterized by the differential expression of stem cell antigen-1 (Sca-1; Ly-6A/E). Sca-1(-) pDCs are mainly found in the BM, appear first during development, show a higher proliferative activity, and represent the more precursor phenotype. Sca-1(+) pDCs are mostly located in secondary lymphoid organs and represent a later developmental stage. Sca-1(-) pDCs give rise to an Sca-1(+) subset upon activation or in response to endogenous type I IFN. Interestingly, in contrast to Sca-1(-) pDCs, Sca-1(+) pDCs are defective in IFN-α production upon endosomal TLR9 stimulation, whereas lysosomal signaling via TLR9 is functional in both subsets. Gene expression analysis revealed that osteopontin is strongly upregulated in Sca-1(-) pDCs. These data provide evidence for the molecular basis of the observed functional heterogeneity, as the intracellular isoform of osteopontin couples TLR9 signaling to IFN-α expression. Taken together, our results indicate that Sca-1(-) pDCs are an early developmental stage of pDCs with distinct innate functions representing the true murine natural IFN-α-producing cells.

Organ-dependent in vivo priming of naive CD4+, but not CD8+, T cells by plasmacytoid dendritic cells.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) play a pivotal role as cytokine-secreting accessory cells in the antimicrobial immune defense. In contrast, the capacity of PDCs to act as antigen-presenting cells in naive T cell priming remains unclear. By studying T cell responses in mice that lack conventional DCs (cDCs), and by the use of a PDC-specific antigen-targeting strategy, we show that PDCs can initiate productive naive CD4(+) T cell responses in lymph nodes, but not in the spleen. PDC-triggered CD4(+) T cell responses differed from cDC-driven responses in that they were not associated with concomitant CD8(+) T cell priming. Our results establish PDCs as a bona fide DC subset that initiates unique CD4(+) Th cell-dominated primary immune responses.

NK cell activation in visceral leishmaniasis requires TLR9, myeloid DCs, and IL-12, but is independent of plasmacytoid DCs.

Natural killer (NK) cells are sentinel components of the innate response to pathogens, but the cell types, pathogen recognition receptors, and cytokines required for their activation in vivo are poorly defined. Here, we investigated the role of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), myeloid DCs (mDCs), Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and of NK cell stimulatory cytokines for the induction of an NK cell response to the protozoan parasite Leishmania infantum. In vitro, pDCs did not endocytose Leishmania promastigotes but nevertheless released interferon (IFN)-alpha/beta and interleukin (IL)-12 in a TLR9-dependent manner. mDCs rapidly internalized Leishmania and, in the presence of TLR9, produced IL-12, but not IFN-alpha/beta. Depletion of pDCs did not impair the activation of NK cells in L. infantum-infected mice. In contrast, L. infantum-induced NK cell cytotoxicity and IFN-gamma production were abolished in mDC-depleted mice. The same phenotype was observed in TLR9(-/-) mice, which lacked IL-12 expression by mDCs, and in IL-12(-/-) mice, whereas IFN-alpha/beta receptor(-/-) mice showed only a minor reduction of NK cell IFN-gamma expression. This study provides the first direct evidence that mDCs are essential for eliciting NK cell cytotoxicity and IFN-gamma release in vivo and demonstrates that TLR9, mDCs, and IL-12 are functionally linked to the activation of NK cells in visceral leishmaniasis.

The Contorsbody, an antibody format for agonism: Design, structure, and function.

The careful design of the antibody architecture is becoming more and more important, especially when the purpose is agonism. We present the design of a novel antibody format that is able to promote receptor dimerization and induce signal transduction resulting in cell proliferation. Mono-specific bivalent Y-shape IgGs made of two light chains and two heavy chains are engineered into single chain dimers of two modified heavy chains, resulting in the fixation of the two Fab fragments along the Fc dimerizing moiety. By this, an antagonist of the Her-receptor family, Trastuzumab, is re-formatted into an agonist by simply incorporating the original binding motif into a different geometrically and sterically constrained conformation. This novel format, named Contorsbody, retains antigen binding properties of the parental IgGs and can be produced by standard technologies established for recombinant IgGs. Structural analyses using molecular dynamics and electron microscopy are described to guide the initial design and to confirm the Contorsbody as a very compact molecule, respectively. Contorsbodies show increased rigidity compared to IgGs and their Fab moieties are positioned parallel and adjacent to each other. This geometry has an increased potential to trigger cell surface antigen or receptor 'cis'-dimerization without 'trans'-bridging of cells or mere receptor blockade.

Brain Shuttle Antibody for Alzheimer's Disease with Attenuated Peripheral Effector Function due to an Inverted Binding Mode.

Receptors show promise for the transport of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) across the blood-brain barrier. However, safety liabilities associated with peripheral receptor binding and Fc effector function have been reported. We present the Brain Shuttle-mAb (BS-mAb) technology, and we investigate the role of Fc effector function in vitro and in an Fcγ receptor (FcγR)-humanized mouse model. Strong first infusion reactions (FIRs) were observed for a conventional mAb against transferrin receptor (TfR) with a wild-type immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) Fc. Fc effector-dead constructs completely eliminated all FIRs. Remarkably, no FIR was observed for the BS-mAb construct with a native IgG1 Fc function. Using various BS-mAb constructs, we show that TfR binding through the C-terminal BS module attenuates Fc-FcγR interactions, primarily because of steric hindrance. Nevertheless, BS-mAbs maintain effector function activity when binding their brain target. Thus, mAbs with full effector function can be transported in a stealth mode in the periphery while fully active when engaged with their brain target.

Combined inhibition of tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-17 as a therapeutic opportunity in rheumatoid arthritis: development and characterization of a novel bispecific antibody.

OBJECTIVE: Rheumatoid arthritis therapies that are based on inhibition of a single cytokine, e.g., tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) or interleukin-6 (IL-6), produce clinically meaningful responses in only about half of the treated patients. This study was undertaken to investigate whether combined inhibition of TNFα and IL-17 has additive or synergistic effects in the suppression of mesenchymal cell activation in vitro and inflammation and tissue destruction in arthritis in vivo. METHODS: Cultures of human fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) were stimulated with TNFα, IL-17, or a combination of both. Single/combined neutralizing antibodies against TNFα and IL-17 were used to examine in vitro cytokine responses and in vivo development of arthritis and bone and cartilage destruction in TNFα-transgenic mice. Bispecific anti-TNFα/IL-17 antibodies were designed, and their potential to block cytokine responses in human FLS was tested. RESULTS: TNFα and IL-17 had additive/synergistic effects in promoting production of IL-6, IL-8, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, as well as matrix metalloproteinases, in FLS. Bispecific anti-TNFα/IL-17 antibodies showed superior efficacy in blocking cytokine and chemokine responses in vitro. Furthermore, dual versus single inhibition of both cytokines using neutralizing antibodies was more effective in inhibiting the development of inflammation and bone and cartilage destruction in arthritic mice. CONCLUSION: Combined blockade of TNFα and IL-17 was more effective than single blockade in inhibiting cytokine, chemokine, and matrix enzyme responses from human mesenchymal cells and in blocking tissue destruction associated with arthritis, and additionally showed a positive impact on rebalance of bone homeostasis. Bispecific anti-TNFα/IL-17 antibodies may have superior efficacy in the treatment of arthritis and may overcome the limited therapeutic responses obtained with single cytokine neutralization.

Cutting edge: central nervous system plasmacytoid dendritic cells regulate the severity of relapsing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) have both stimulatory and regulatory effects on T cells. pDCs are a major CNS-infiltrating dendritic cell population during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis but, unlike myeloid dendritic cells, have a minor role in T cell activation and epitope spreading. We show that depletion of pDCs during either the acute or relapse phases of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis resulted in exacerbation of disease severity. pDC depletion significantly enhanced CNS but not peripheral CD4(+) T cell activation, as well as IL-17 and IFN-gamma production. Moreover, CNS pDCs suppressed CNS myeloid dendritic cell-driven production of IL-17, IFN-gamma, and IL-10 in an IDO-independent manner. The data demonstrate that pDCs play a critical regulatory role in negatively regulating pathogenic CNS CD4(+) T cell responses, highlighting a new role for pDCs in inflammatory autoimmune disease.

Dendritic cells respond to influenza virus through TLR7- and PKR-independent pathways.

Natural interferon-producing cells (IPC) secrete type I IFN (IFN-alpha and -beta) in response to influenza virus. This process is independent of viral replication and is mediated by Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7), which recognizes single-stranded RNA (ssRNA). DC also express TLR7 but its function in DC response to influenza virus is unknown. To address this, we compared the DC and IPC responses to influenza virus and ssRNA oligoribonucleotides (ORN) that activate TLR7. When stimulated by ORN in vitro and in vivo, DC matured and produced inflammatory cytokines but not IFN-alpha. DC did secrete IFN-alpha in response to influenza virus. However, this response was independent of TLR7 signaling and required viral replication but not dsRNA-activated protein kinase (PKR). We conclude that DC and IPC are hard-wired to secrete IFN-alpha via different pathways, reflecting their complementary but distinct roles in anti-viral immunity.

TLR9-dependent recognition of MCMV by IPC and DC generates coordinated cytokine responses that activate antiviral NK cell function.

Natural interferon-producing cells (IPC) respond to viruses by secreting type I interferon (IFN) and interleukin-12 (IL-12). Toll-like receptor (TLR) 9 mediates IPC recognition of some of these viruses in vitro. However, whether TLR9-induced activation of IPC is necessary for an effective antiviral response in vivo is not clear. Here, we demonstrate that IPC and dendritic cells (DC) recognize murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) through TLR9. TLR9-mediated cytokine secretion promotes viral clearance by NK cells that express the MCMV-specific receptor Ly49H. Although depletion of IPC leads to a drastic reduction of the IFN-alpha response, this allows other cell types to secrete IL-12, ensuring normal IFN-gamma and NK cell responses to MCMV. We conclude that the TLR9/MyD88 pathway mediates antiviral cytokine responses by IPC, DC, and possibly other cell types, which are coordinated to promote effective NK cell function and MCMV clearance.