Regulation of Class IA PI 3-kinases: C2 domain-iSH2 domain contacts inhibit p85/p110alpha and are disrupted in oncogenic p85 mutants.

We previously proposed a model of Class IA PI3K regulation in which p85 inhibition of p110alpha requires (i) an inhibitory contact between the p85 nSH2 domain and the p110alpha helical domain, and (ii) a contact between the p85 nSH2 and iSH2 domains that orients the nSH2 so as to inhibit p110alpha. We proposed that oncogenic truncations of p85 fail to inhibit p110 due to a loss of the iSH2-nSH2 contact. However, we now find that within the context of a minimal regulatory fragment of p85 (the nSH2-iSH2 fragment, termed p85ni), the nSH2 domain rotates much more freely (tau(c) approximately 12.7 ns) than it could if it were interacting rigidly with the iSH2 domain. These data are not compatible with our previous model. We therefore tested an alternative model in which oncogenic p85 truncations destabilize an interface between the p110alpha C2 domain (residue N345) and the p85 iSH2 domain (residues D560 and N564). p85ni-D560K/N564K shows reduced inhibition of p110alpha, similar to the truncated p85ni-572(STOP). Conversely, wild-type p85ni poorly inhibits p110alphaN345K. Strikingly, the p110alphaN345K mutant is inhibited to the same extent by the wild-type or truncated p85ni, suggesting that mutation of p110alpha-N345 is not additive with the p85ni-572(STOP) mutation. Similarly, the D560K/N564K mutation is not additive with the p85ni-572(STOP) mutant for downstream signaling or cellular transformation. Thus, our data suggests that mutations at the C2-iSH2 domain contact and truncations of the iSH2 domain, which are found in human tumors, both act by disrupting the C2-iSH2 domain interface.

hVps15, but not Ca2+/CaM, is required for the activity and regulation of hVps34 in mammalian cells.

The mammalian Class III PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase), hVps34 [mammalian Vps (vacuolar protein sorting) 34 homologue], is an important regulator of vesicular trafficking, autophagy and nutrient sensing. In yeast, Vps34 is associated with a putative serine/threonine protein kinase, Vps15, which is required for Vps34p activity. The mammalian homologue of Vps15p, hVps15 (formerly called p150), also binds to hVps34, but its role in hVps34 signalling has not been evaluated. In the present study we have therefore compared the activity and regulation of hVps34 expressed without or with hVps15. We find that hVps34 has low specific activity when expressed alone; co-expression with hVps15 leads to a marked increase in activity. Notably, beclin-1/UVRAG (UV radiation resistance-associated gene) activation of hVps34 requires co-expression with hVps15; this may be explained by the observation that beclin-1/UVRAG expression increases hVps34/hVps15 binding. Regulation of hVps34 activity by nutrients also requires co-expression with hVps15. Finally, given a recent report that hVps34 activity requires Ca2+/CaM (calmodulin), we considered whether hVps15 might be involved in this regulation. Although hVps34 does bind CaM, we find its activity is not affected by treatment of cells with BAPTA/AM [1,2-bis-(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetra-acetic acid tetrakis(acetoxymethyl ester)] or W7. Removal of CaM by EDTA or EGTA washes has no effect on hVps34 activity, and hVps34 activity in vitro is unaffected by Ca2+ chelation. The results of the present study show that, in mammalian cells, hVps34 activity is regulated through its interactions with hVps15, but is independent of Ca2+/CaM.

Determining the macropinocytic index of cells through a quantitative image-based assay.

Macropinocytosis serves as an internalization pathway for extracellular fluid and its contents. Macropinocytosis is upregulated in oncogene-expressing cells and, recently, we have revealed a functional role for macropinocytosis in fueling cancer cell growth through the internalization of extracellular albumin, which is degraded into a usable source of intracellular amino acids. Assessing macropinocytosis has been challenging in the past because of the lack of reliable assays capable of quantitatively measuring this uptake mechanism. Here we describe a protocol for visualizing and quantifying the extent of macropinocytosis in cells both in culture and growing in vivo as tumor xenografts. By using this approach, the 'macropinocytic index' of a particular cell line or subcutaneous tumor can be ascertained within 1-2 d. The protocol can be carried out with multiple samples in parallel and can be easily adapted for a variety of cell types and xenograft or allograft mouse models.

The late endosome is essential for mTORC1 signaling.

The multisubunit mTORC1 complex integrates signals from growth factors and nutrients to regulate protein synthesis, cell growth, and autophagy. To examine how endocytic trafficking might be involved in nutrient regulation of mTORC1, we perturbed specific endocytic trafficking pathways and measured mTORC1 activity using S6K1 as a readout. When early/late endosomal conversion was blocked by either overexpression of constitutively active Rab5 (Rab5CA) or knockdown of the Rab7 GEF hVps39, insulin- and amino acid-stimulated mTORC1/S6K1 activation were inhibited, and mTOR localized to hybrid early/late endosomes. Inhibition of other stages of endocytic trafficking had no effect on mTORC1. Overexpression of Rheb, which activates mTOR independently of mTOR localization, rescued mTORC1 signaling in cells expressing Rab5CA, whereas hyperactivation of endogenous Rheb in TSC2-/- MEFs did not. These data suggest that integrity of late endosomes is essential for amino acid- and insulin-stimulated mTORC1 signaling and that blocking the early/late endosomal conversion prevents mTOR from interacting with Rheb in the late endosomal compartment.

Cdc42 is required for EGF-stimulated protrusion and motility in MTLn3 carcinoma cells.

Cdc42 plays a central role in regulating the actin cytoskeleton and maintaining cell polarity. Here, we show that Cdc42 is crucial for epidermal growth factor (EGF)-stimulated protrusion in MTLn3 carcinoma cells. When stimulated with EGF, carcinoma cells showed a rapid increase in activated Cdc42 that is primarily localized to the protruding edge of the cells. siRNA-mediated knockdown of Cdc42 expression caused a decrease in EGF-stimulated protrusion and reduced cell motility in time-lapse studies. These changes were correlated with a decrease in barbed-end formation and Arp2/3 localization at the cell edge, and a marked defect in actin filament branching, as revealed by rotary-shadowing scanning electron microscopy. Upstream of Arp2/3, Cdc42 knockdown inhibited EGF-stimulated activation of PI 3-kinase at early (within 1 minute) but not late (within 3 minutes) time points. Membrane targeting of N-WASP, WAVE2 and IRSp53 were also inhibited. Effects on WAVE2 were not owing to Rac1 inhibition, because WAVE2 recruitment is unaffected by Rac1 knockdown. Our data suggest that Cdc42 activation is crucial for the regulation of actin polymerization in carcinoma cells, and required for both EGF-stimulated protrusion and cell motility independently of effects on Rac.