[Global health: a Latin American vision]. / Salud global: una visión latinoamericana.

This article presents a Latin American vision of global health from a counterhegemonic perspective, applicable to various countries of the world in similar circumstances. It begins by reviewing several concepts and trends in global health and outlining the differences between conventional public health, international health, and global health, but without seeing them as antagonistic, instead situating them in a model that is based on global health and also includes the other two disciplines. It is understood that global factors influenced earlier theories, schemes, and models of classic international health. The article emphasizes the importance of several aspects of world-geopolitics and economic globalization that impose constraints on world health; it also underscores the theory of social and environmental determinants of the health-disease spectrum, which have impacts beyond those of epidemiologic risk factors. The suggested approach is based on cosmopolitanism and holism: global philosophical and political currents that allow for a better interpretation of world phenomena and are more relevant because they give rise to lines of action. Structurally, the theoretical foundations of global health are presented in three analytical areas: global justice and equity, governance and the supranational protection of rights, and holism and a new global consciousness. The article concludes by underscoring the need to construct an approach to the existence and praxis of global public health that is based on the Latin American perspective, an approach that highlights grassroots social movements as an alternative way to secure a new order and global awareness of rights and to redefine the architecture of global health governance.

[Models for public health policy analysis reported in scientific publications]. / Modelos para el análisis de políticas públicas en salud reportados en publicaciones científicas.

OBJECTIVE: To summarize public health policy models reported in studies published between 2002-2017. METHOD: Using MesH vocabulary, we systematically searched articles in English, Spanish and Portuguese in the PubMed, Scielo, Jstor, ProQuest and Google Scholar data-bases. The quality of the articles was assessed using the tool for understanding a qualitative study by CASPe. RESULTS: A higher proportion of scientific studies were conducted in the African continent. The policies relating to health care were most frequently investigated. Walt and Gilson's model and Kingdon's multiple streams framework were more frequently reported. CONCLUSIONS: The articles set out the public policy analysis model, but not the approach to guide it. A more robust theoretical body needs to be built to enable discussion about the approaches and models for the analysis of public policies. Its distinction is relevant, since it can order methodological proposals for the study of policies.

State downsizing as a determinant of infant mortality and achievement of Millennium Development Goal 4.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the worldwide effect of state downsizing policies on achievement of U.N. Millennium Development Goal 4 (MDG4) on infant mortality rates. In an ecological retrospective cohort study of 161 countries, from 1978 to 2002, the authors analyzed changes in government consumption (GC) as determining exposure to achievement of MDG4. Descriptive methods and a multiple logistic regression were applied to adjust for changes in gross domestic product, level of democracy, and income inequality. Excess infant mortality in the exposed countries, attributable to reductions in GC, was estimated. Fifty countries were found to have reduced GC, and 111 had increased GC. The gap in infant mortality rate between these groups of countries doubled in the study period. Non-achievement of MDG4 was associated with reductions in GC and increases in income inequality. The excess infant mortality attributable to GC reductions in the exposed countries from 1990 to 2002 was 4,473,348 deaths. The probability of achieving MDG4 seems to be seriously compromised for many countries because of reduced public sector expenditure during the last 25 years of the 20th century, in response to World Bank/International Monetary Fund Washington Consensus policies. This seeming contradiction between the goals of different U.N. branches may be undermining achievement of MDG4 and should be taken into account when developing future global governance policy.

[Human rights, an opportunity for public policies in health]. / Derechos humanos, una oportunidad para las políticas públicas en salud.

Human rights outlined a better scenario for public policies in health. For it requires intersectoral and interdisciplinary approach. This article emphasizes the perspective of public health policies based on human rights, clarifies the relationship of public policies with the exercise of human rights, beyond the right to health. It recognizes the need to implement genuinely democratic and participatory mechanisms. It considers the universal declaration of human rights and other institutional expressions about the same as the international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights, discusses the ranking of the same and defend its entirety on the determinants of health through its cohesion and political factor. It defines a framework for public health and human rights that trend by strengthening social rights, as a new area of operation, based on public policies to address the determinants of health, upholding social justice, beyond the health field and the biological and behavioural risk factors to decisions arising from political power, exceeds medical solutions and access to health services. In conclusion, it promoting respect for human rights by greater understanding of them and strengthens the importance of indirect health policies (such as food, environment and health, violence gender) and the role of international policies in the global world.

[Appraisal of the Millennium Development Goals by means of a review of the scientific literature in 2008]. / Valoración de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio mediante la revisión de la literatura científica en 2008.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are now at the midterm of their target period, as 2015 is the date scheduled by the United Nations Organisation (UN) for their attainment. The purpose of this article is to review the current situation of the MDGs worldwide and to analyse the barriers which are preventing them from being attained in each of the MDG areas, as well as to assess a number of the indicators evaluated. In order to do so, a review has been made of the scientific literature published on the MDGs in the principal health sciences and social sciences databases, as well as the most significant reports on the issue drawn up by the United Nations. The scientific studies on the 8 MDGs and their 18 Targets make it possible to undertake a critical analysis of the situation in which each of these Goals are found at the present time, identifying the determinants that are preventing the attainment of the Goals and the actions considered necessary in order to achieve progress. Although there have been improvements in some of the goals on a world level, the research carried out to date reveals barriers to the attainment of the MDGs, as well as the insufficient weight of the developing countries in the economic and political decision-making processes, together with the incoherence between the economic policies and the social and health policies. Furthermore, Sub-Saharan Africa constitutes the most disadvantaged region, which means that it will not attain the majority of the MDGs. Spain and the developed countries, in addition to contributing resources, can also contribute to the MDGs by means of the identification and eradication of the barriers preventing attainment. This involves promoting international economic relations under conditions of social justice, by supporting a greater decision-making power for developing countries and denouncing actions that increase social inequalities and the impoverishment of the population.

Modelos de promoción de la salud y determinantes sociales: una revisión narrativa / Health promotion models and social determinants of health: a narrative review / Modelos de promoção da saúde e determinantes sociais: uma revisão narrativa

Resumen Objetivo: este artículo se propone identificar diferentes modelos de promoción de la salud (PS), y analizar cómo ha evolucionado la promoción de la salud a partir de los lineamientos de los determinantes sociales de la salud (DSS) y su aplicabilidad en los países. Metodología: se parte de una revisión temática, de los artículos en Pubmed, Lilac y Scielo, mediante los operadores booleanos ((promoción salud) or (atención primaria)) and ((determinantes sociales) or (determinación social)), en los últimos 5 años; se obtuvieron 178 artículos en Lilac, 69 en Scielo, 132 en Pubmed; 33 en scholar.google.com, gracias a los descriptores: "modelos, enfoques y teorías" and PS. Resultados: las principales áreas identificadas fueron: atención primaria, DSS, políticas públicas, salud bucal, políticas de salud, servicios de salud, accesibilidad, enfermedades crónicas. Se analiza la lógica de la prevención y su diferenciación con la racionalidad de PS, a partir de un análisis del contexto de la práctica internacional. Se discute la confusión entre promoción y prevención y la falta de desarrollo de los niveles colectivos y comunitarios de la PS basados en la atención primaria en salud. Conclusiones: la PS y la prevención no lograron ser desarrolladas en los sistemas de salud. Muchos de los postulados teóricos de la PS han sido relegados. Se proponen varios niveles de intervención en PS: contextual, macro, meso, micro, individual, y acciones globales, estratégicas, comunitarias, interpersonales e intrapersonales. Hace falta más investigación sobre DSS, que establezca el balance entre lo individual y lo colectivo en PS.

Abstract Objective: This article intends to identify different models of health promotion (HP), and analyze how health promotion has evolved from the guidelines of social determinants (SDH) and its applicability in the countries. Methodology: starting from a thematic review of the articles in Pubmed, Lilac and Scielo, using the Boolean operators (PS) or (primary care) and (SDH) or (social determinants of health) in the last 5 years. A total of 178 articles were obtained in Lilac, 69 in Scielo, 132 in Pubmed. A total of 33 articles were found in scholar.google.com, thanks to the descriptors, "models, approaches and theories" and PS. Results: the main areas identified are: primary care, SDH, public policies, oral health, health policies, health services, accessibility. The logic of prevention and its differentiation with the rationality of PS is analyzed, based on an analysis of the context of international practice. The confusion between promotion and prevention and the lack of development of the collective and community levels of HP based on primary health care, are discussed. Conclusions: PS and prevention failed to be developed in health systems. Many of the theoretical postulates of PS have been relegated. Several levels of intervention in PS are proposed: contextual, macro, meso, micro, individual, and global, strategic, community, interpersonal and intrapersonal actions. More research is needed on SDH, which establishes the balance between the individual and the collective, in PS.

Resumo Objetivo: este artigo se propõe identificar diferentes modelos de promoção da saúde (PS), e analisar como tem evolucionado a promoção da saúde a partir dos lineamentos dos determinantes sociais da saúde (DSS) e sua aplicabilidade nos países. Metodologia: parte-se de uma revisão temática, dos artigos em Pubmed, Lilac e Scielo, mediante os operadores booleanos ((promoção saúde) ou (atenção primaria)) e ((determinantes sociais) ou (determinação social)), nos últimos 5 anos; se obtiveram 178 artigos em Lilac, 69 em Scielo, 132 em Pubmed; 33 em scholar.google.com, graças aos descritores: "modelos, enfoques e teorias" e PS. Resultados: as principais áreas identificadas foram: atenção primaria, DSS, políticas públicas, saúde bucal, políticas de saúde, serviços de saúde, acessibilidade, doenças crônicas. Analisa-se a lógica da prevenção e sua diferenciação com a racionalidade de PS, a partir de uma análise do contexto da prática internacional. Discute-se a confusão entre promoção e prevenção e a falta de desenvolvimento dos níveis coletivos e comunitários da PS baseados na atenção primaria em saúde. Conclusões: a PS e a prevenção não conseguiram ser desenvolvidas nos sistemas de saúde. Muitos dos postulados teóricos da PS tem sido relegados. Propõem-se vários níveis de intervenção em PS: contextual, macro, micro, individual, e ações globais, estratégicas, comunitárias, interpessoais e intrapessoais. Faz falta mais pesquisa sobre DSS, que estabeleçam o balanço entre o individual e o coletivo em PS.

La salud pública en Colombia (1991-2021). Promoción de la salud y prevención: una revisión

Objetivo Este artículo se propone realizar un balance de la promoción de la salud durante el desempeño del sistema de salud, a partir de la reforma constitucional de 1991. Métodos Se parte de una revisión temática, en bases de datos de PubMed, Scielo, Google Scholar, a través de los términos y operadores booleanos ("promoción de la salud" or "prevención") and ("Colombia"), en los últimos 10 años (2011-2021); y la legislación sobre promoción de la salud de los últimos 30 años en Colombia, seleccionando la más relevante. Discusión Se analiza la trayectoria regulatoria de la salud pública, derivada de la Ley 100 de 1993, destacando la confusión que entre promoción y prevención se dio en el sistema. Se discuten varias fases de desarrollo de la salud pública en este período, con grandes falencias en la primera década de la reforma, mejorando después del 2005, pero sin lograr su cometido, dadas las contradicciones con el modelo de mercado que rige el sistema. No se logran desarrollar los niveles colectivos y comunitarios de la promoción de la salud, como tampoco la perspectiva estratégica de la atención primaria en salud (APS). Conclusión La promoción de la salud y la prevención no lograron ser desarrolladas de manera cabal en Colombia, a pesar del entorno internacional proclive a su implementación mediante la atención primaria en salud. Muchos de los postulados teóricos de la legislación se han quedado en la retórica y pendientes de aplicación, muy a pesar del amplio marco regulatorio que se dio en estos treinta años.

Objective This article carries out a balance of health promotion during the performance of the health system, starting from the constitutional reform of 1991. Methods It is part of a thematic review, in databases, Pubmed, Scielo, google scholar, through boolean terms and operators (health promotion or prevention) and (Colombia), in the last 10 years (2011 - 2021); and the legislation on health promotion of the last 30 years in Colombia, selecting the most relevant. Discussion The regulatory trajectory of public health, derived from Law 100 of 1993, is analyzed, highlighting the confusion between promotion and prevention occurred in the system. Various phases of public health development are discussed in this period, with major flaws in the first decade of the reform, improving after 2005 but without achieving its mission, given the contradictions with the market model that governs the system. It was not possible to develop the collective and community levels of health promotion, as well as the strategic perspective of primary health care (PHC). Conclusion Health promotion and prevention could not be fully developed in Colombia, despite the international environment prone to its implementation through primary health care. Many of the theoretical postulates of the legislation have remained in rhetoric and pending application, despite the broad regulatory framework that has occurred in these 30 years.

Democratisation and health after the fall of the Wall.

OBJECTIVES: The fall of the Wall in 1989 can be seen as a natural experiment in the epidemiological sense to further examine the relation between democracy and health. DESIGN AND SETTING: Ecological study in the 23 post-communist countries, during the last decade of the 20th century, exploring the relations between the level of democratisation and health, taking into account as relevant confounders wealth and the level of inequality. MAIN RESULTS: A significant correlation (p<0.01) was found of the democratic deficit of the countries with the health indicators circa 2000, with values of Pearson's coefficient of -0.629 for life expectancy, 0.760 for infant mortality, and 0.555 for maternal mortality. These associations remain significant after adjustment by lineal regression for GNP per capita and the Gini coefficient, with R(2) values of 0.336 for life expectancy, 0.575 for infant mortality, and 0.529 for maternal mortality. CONCLUSIONS: These findings add pieces of evidence to the previously reported cross sectional association between democracy and health.

[Influences and hegemonies in health reform research]. / Influencias y hegemonías en la orientación de la investigación de las reformas de salud.

The authors analyze the evolution in publications indexed in MEDLINE, LILACS, and Sociological Abstracts concerning health reforms around the world and the determinants of their orientation and distribution from 1990 to 2004. A total of 8,729 publications were selected. The principles of "sustainability" and "quality and effectiveness" were dealt with most frequently, with different patterns of attention, depending on the regions and countries. Of 199 countries, 61% included references as to their health reform processes, with the largest numbers in the United States and the Great Britain. The British and U.S. standards for attention to health reform principles displayed strong influences on the study of health reforms elsewhere. This may limit the scientific visibility of issues like equity, participation, and efficiency.

[The challenge to public health of the Millenium Development Goals: an approach from political epidemiology]. / El reto para la salud pública de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio: un enfoque desde la epidemiología política.

The Millennium Development Goals, and within these the Millennium Targets, constitute a working plan that strives to achieve basic goals within the field of health, eradicate poverty, and ensure compliance with basic human rights. Its scope of action represents a historic breakthrough as a step toward a possible global social policy, in which cooperation between the different sectors is essential for its efficiency. Due to its multidisciplinary nature, public health, as well as political epidemiology, can be used to help increase scientific knowledge in the field of health with respect to the Millennium Development Goals. Despite the opportunity that this international agreement provides, insufficient in-depth study has been carried out on the potential -mainly political- difficulties that could arise during its implementation. Therefore, a conceptual and methodological change is required so that concern does not simply center on social determinants of health but instead takes into consideration the political reasons behind them. To reduce inequality, not only must injustice be classified but effective ways must also be found to encourage institutions with political power to take part in this initiative.

La salud bucal, entre la salud sistémica y la salud pública / Oral health between systemic health and public health

Resumen Introducción: A pesar de la implementación de diversas estrategias para atender la problemática en salud bucal, aun esta adolece de una visión de integralidad del ser humano y la práctica sanitaria. Objetivo: Analizar desde una perspectiva interpretativa y crítica la salud bucal, con énfasis en el caso colombiano, como práctica sanitaria y profesional, siguiendo la lógica de su relación con la salud sistémica y la salud pública. Materiales y métodos: Se realizó una revisión narrativa de tipo documental, mediante la búsqueda en las bases de datos Pubmed y Google escolarship (GS) en los últimos 5 años con los términos booleanos (periodontitis or oral pahology) and (systemic diseases), para la pregunta guía: ¿Cómo la patología bucal influye en las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles? Resultados: Se identificaron asociaciones de la patología bucal con la salud sistémica, con las ECNT (diabetes, enfermedades cardiovasculares, embarazo y eclampsia, enfermedad perinatal, Alzheimer), entre otras. Conclusiones: Es consistente en la literatura la relación biunívoca de la enfermedad periodontal con las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles, aunque no se concluye sobre relaciones de causalidad. Se proponen algunas estrategias de salud pública y articulación de la práctica sanitaria interprofesional.

Abstract Introduction: Despite the implementation of diverse strategies to address oral health problems, they still lack an integral vision of both the human being and health practice. Objective: To analyze oral health as a medical and professional practice from an interpretative and critical perspective. The Colombian context was highlighted as well as the association of oral health with systemic and public health. Materials and methods: A documentary narrative review was conducted, searching the Boolean terms: (periodontitis or oral pathology) and (systematic diseases). The guiding question used was, "How does oral pathology affect chronic non-communicable diseases?" and the search included the last five years. Results: Associations of oral health with systemic health, CNCDs (diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, eclampsia, perinatal disease, and Alzheimer's), among others, were identified. Conclusions: A biunivocal relationship between periodontal disease and chronic non-communicable diseases is consistent in the literature, but causal relationships are difficult to conclude. Both public health strategies and an articulation of the interprofessional health practice are proposed.

Modelos para el análisis de políticas públicas en salud reportados en publicaciones científicas / Models for public health policy analysis reported in scientific publications

Objetivo: Sintetizar los modelos para el análisis de políticas públicas en salud reportados en investigaciones publicadas en el periodo 2002-2017. Método: Utilizando términos MesH se realizó una búsqueda sistemática de artículos en inglés, portugués y español en las bases de datos PubMed, Scielo, Jstor, ProQuest y Google Académico publicados en el periodo de estudio. La evaluación de la calidad se realizó mediante la herramienta para entender un estudio cualitativo desarrollada por CASPe. Resultados: La mayor proporción de investigaciones se realizaron en países del continente africano. Las políticas relacionadas con la atención en salud fueron objeto de investigación con mayor frecuencia. El modelo de análisis de políticas de Walt y Gilson, seguido del marco de corrientes múltiples de Kingdon, fueron los modelos que con mayor regularidad se reportaron. Conclusiones: En los artículos se enuncia el modelo de análisis de política pública, pero no el enfoque que la orienta. Se requiere construir un corpus teórico más robusto que permita la discusión sobre los enfoques y modelos para el análisis de políticas públicas. Su distinción es relevante, ya que puede ordenar las propuestas metodológicas para el estudio de las políticas. (AU)

Objective: To summarize public health policy models reported in studies published between 2002-2017. Method: Using MesH vocabulary, we systematically searched articles in English, Spanish and Portuguese in the PubMed, Scielo, Jstor, ProQuest and Google Scholar data-bases. The quality of the articles was assessed using the tool for understanding a qualitative study by CASPe. Results: A higher proportion of scientific studies were conducted in the African continent. The policies relating to health care were most frequently investigated. Walt and Gilson's model and Kingdon's multiple streams framework were more frequently reported. Conclusions: The articles set out the public policy analysis model, but not the approach to guide it. A more robust theoretical body needs to be built to enable discussion about the approaches and models for the analysis of public policies. Its distinction is relevant, since it can order methodological proposals for the study of policies. (AI)

[Academic review of global health approaches: an analytical framework]. / Revisión de enfoques académicos en salud global: un marco analítico.

In order to identify perspectives on global health, this essay analyzes different trends from academia that have enriched global health and international health. A database was constructed with information from the world's leading global health centers. The search covered authors on global diplomacy and global health and was performed in PubMed, LILACS, and Google Scholar with the key words "global health" and "international health". Research and training centers in different countries have taken various academic approaches to global health; various interests and ideological orientations have emerged in relation to the global health concept. Based on the mosaic of global health centers and their positions, the review concludes that the new concept reflects the construction of a paradigm of renewal in international health and global health, the pre-paradigmatic stage of which has still not reached a final version.

[Review of food policy approaches: from food security to food sovereignty (2000-2013)]. / Revisión de enfoques de políticas alimentarias: entre la seguridad y la soberanía alimentaria (2000-2013).

Food policies have attracted special interest due to the global food crisis in 2008 and promotion of the Millennium Development Goals, leading to approaches by different fields. This thematic review aims to describe the main theoretical and methodological approaches to food security and food sovereignty policies. A search was performed in databases of scientific journals from 2000 to 2013. 320 complete articles were selected from a total of 2,699. After reading the articles to apply the inclusion criteria, 55 items were maintained for analysis. In conclusion, with the predominance of food security as a guiding policy, food sovereignty has emerged as a critical response to be included in designing and researching food policies. Food policies are essential for achieving public health goals. Public health should thus take a leading role in linking and orienting such policies.

La salud pública en discusión

Este ensayo reflexivo discurre alrededor de la salud pública, en torno a temas discutibles, como su dimensión epistémica, su perspectiva frente a la dialéctica territorial local-global, su relación con la medicina social en Latinoamérica, su pretensión de cientificidad, su posición ante el asunto de la determinación y los determinantes sociales de la salud, su lugar en la contradicción entre el sujeto y la estructura, y cómo se ve afectada por la tensión del capitalismo cognitivo y la universidad. El texto considera el fracaso de las políticas en salud y de las políticas públicas globales, y propone la construcción académica y política de una transdisciplinariedad, basados en las teorías de la complejidad y otras concepciones novedosas, en interacción con otras áreas del conocimiento y actores diversos. Asimismo, defiende el rescate de la interculturalidad; propende por el debate teórico, junto a las ciencias sociales y humanas, sobre temas y problemas comunes; reconoce el pluralismo metodológico, validando los instrumentos de la epidemiología poblacional y otras modalidades de la misma, así como los avances de la investigación cualitativa y la comprensión de las intersubjetividades. Finalmente, el artículo recomienda que los salubristas asuman la salud pública como una opción con sentido de vida.

This reflective essay discusses public health topics such as its epistemic dimension, how it is affected by the local-global territory dialectics, its relationship with social medicine in Latin America, its pretense of scientificity, its stance regarding the issue of determination and social determinants of health, its place in the contradiction between subject and structure and how it is affected by the tension of cognitive capitalism and the university. The text discusses the failure of healthcare policies and global public policies, and proposes the academic and political construction of a transdisciplinarity based on the theories of complexity, interaction with other fields of knowledge and various actors. Likewise, it defends recovering interculturality and leans towards a theoretical debate, alongside social and human sciences, on common topics and problems. Similarly, it acknowledges methodological pluralism, thus validating the instruments of population epidemiology and other forms of it as well as the advancements in the field of qualitative research and the understanding of intersubjectivities. Finally, the paper recommends that healthcare professionals perceive public health as an option with a sense of life.

Este ensaio cogitativo discorre ao redor da saúde pública, circundando aos tópicos discutíveis, como a sua dimensão epistémica, como a afeta a dialética territorial local-global, o seu relacionamento com a medicina social na Latino américa, a sua pretensão de cientificidade, a sua postura diante do assunto da determinação e os determinantes sociais da saúde, o seu lugar na contradição entre o sujeito e a estrutura, e como se vê afetada pela tensão do capitalismo cognitivo e a universidade. O texto considera o fracasso das políticas em saúde e das políticas públicas globais, e propõe a construção académica e política duma trans. disciplinariedade, baseados nas teorias da complexidade, em interação com outras vertentes do conhecimento e atores diversos. Assim mesmo, defende o resgate da Inter cultural idade; promove o debate teórico, enxuto com as ciências sociais e humanas, alusivo a temas e dificuldades comuns; reconhece a pluralidade metodológica, avaliando os instrumentos, a epidemiologia populacional e outras modalidades da mesma, assim como os avanços da investigação qualitativa e a compreensão das Intersubjetividades. Finalmente, o artigo dica que o pessoal da saúde assuma a saúde pública como uma opção com sentido de vida.

Assessment of the association of health with the liberalisation of trade in services under the World Trade Organisation.

BACKGROUND: The liberalisation of trade in services which began in 1995 under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has generated arguments for and against its potential health effects. Our goal was to explore the relationship between the liberalisation of services under the GATS and three health indicators--life expectancy (LE), under-5 mortality (U5M) and maternal mortality (MM)--since the WTO was established. METHODS AND FINDINGS: This was a cross-sectional ecological study that explored the association in 2010 and 1995 between liberalisation and health (LE, U5M and MM), and between liberalisation and progress in health in the period 1995-2010, considering variables related to economic and social policies such as per capita income (GDP pc), public expenditure on health (PEH), and income inequality (Gini index). The units of observation and analysis were WTO member countries with data available for 2010 (n = 116), 1995 (n = 114) and 1995-2010 (n = 114). We conducted bivariate and multivariate linear regression analyses adjusted for GDP pc, Gini and PEH. Increased global liberalisation in services under the WTO was associated with better health in 2010 (U5M: -0.358 p<0.001; MM: -0.338 p = 0.001; LE: 0.247 p = 0.008) and in 1995, after adjusting for economic and social policy variables. For the period 1995-2010, progress in health was associated with income equality, PEH and per capita income. No association was found with global liberalisation in services. CONCLUSIONS: The favourable association in 2010 between health and liberalisation in services under the WTO seems to reflect a pre-WTO association observed in the 1995 data. However, this liberalisation did not appear as a factor associated with progress in health during 1995-2010. Income equality, health expenditure and per capita income were more powerful determinants of the health of populations.

[The latest reform of the Colombian healthcare-related social security system]. / La última reforma del sistema general de seguridad social en salud Colombiano.

OBJECTIVE: This essay was aimed at exploring and analysing the challenges and opportunities arising from reforming Colombian law 1438/2011 dealing with the healthcare-related social security system. METHODS: Some outstanding issues from the reform introduced by Law 100/1993 were reviewed and then compared to the 2011 regulations; they were also contrasted (in market model conditions) with some public health strategies which were inoperative during the reform stage. RESULTS: This second reform phase was discussed in relation to the scope of the right to health, access and overall equity. Progress regarding important issues such as benefit package equalisation, primary healthcare attention, integrated healthcare service networks was recognised; however, its failure to change core aspects of the system was discussed, i.e. financial sustainability and the economic rationale imposed on the aforementioned strategies which curtailed its responsiveness to keep the model introduced by law 100/1993 intact. CONCLUSION: The crucial points necessary for major structural reform of the Colombian healthcare system based on the right to health and equity were then outlined.

Salud global: una visión latinoamericana / Global health: a Latin American vision

RESUMEN En este artículo se presenta una visión latinoamericana de la salud global desde una perspectiva contrahegemónica, extensiva a varios países del mundo que viven circunstancias parecidas. Se parte del reconocimiento de varias concepciones y tendencias de la salud global y de las contradicciones entre la salud pública convencional, la salud internacional y la salud global sin antagonizarlas y logrando ubicarlas en un modelo construido desde la salud global que incluye las otras dos disciplinas. Se supone que lo global condiciona teorías, esquemas y modelos antecedentes de la salud internacional clásica y se subraya la importancia de varios hechos de la geopolítica mundial y de la globalización económica que confinan la salud mundial, así como la teoría de los determinantes sociales y ambientales del binomio salud– enfermedad, que inciden más allá del riesgo epidemiológico. El presente enfoque se apoya en el cosmopolitismo y en el holismo, corrientes filosóficas y políticas mundiales que permiten interpretar mejor los fenómenos mundiales y son más plausibles porque generan vertientes para la acción. Estructuralmente, se presentan las bases teóricas de la salud global en tres ejes analíticos: la justicia global y la equidad, la gobernanza y la preservación supranacional de los derechos, y el holismo y una nueva conciencia global. Se concluye resaltando la importancia de construir un enfoque acerca del ser y la praxis de la salud pública global desde la perspectiva latinoamericana, que destaca los movimientos sociales ciudadanos como una alternativa para conseguir un nuevo orden y una conciencia global por los derechos y redefinir la arquitectura de gobernanza global de la salud.

ABSTRACT This article presents a Latin American vision of global health from a counterhegemonic perspective, applicable to various countries of the world in similar circumstances. It begins by reviewing several concepts and trends in global health and outlining the differences between conventional public health, international health, and global health, but without seeing them as antagonistic, instead situating them in a model that is based on global health and also includes the other two disciplines. It is understood that global factors influenced earlier theories, schemes, and models of classic international health. The article emphasizes the importance of several aspects of world—geopolitics and economic globalization that impose constraints on world health; it also underscores the theory of social and environmental determinants of the health-disease spectrum, which have impacts beyond those of epidemiologic risk factors. The suggested approach is based on cosmopolitanism and holism: global philosophical and political currents that allow for a better interpretation of world phenomena and are more relevant because they give rise to lines of action. Structurally, the theoretical foundations of global health are presented in three analytical areas: global justice and equity, governance and the supranational protection of rights, and holism and a new global consciousness. The article concludes by underscoring the need to construct an approach to the existence and praxis of global public health that is based on the Latin American perspective, an approach that highlights grassroots social movements as an alternative way to secure a new order and global awareness of rights and to redefine the architecture of global health governance.

Revisión de enfoques académicos en salud global: un marco analítico / Academic review of global health approaches: an analytical framework / Revisão de enfoques acadêmicos em saúde global: um marco analítico

Con el fin de establecer perspectivas de la salud global, este ensayo analiza diferentes tendencias que han enriquecido, desde lo académico, la salud global y la salud internacional. Se construyó una base de datos con información sobre los principales y más importantes centros de salud global en el mundo. Para la búsqueda se tuvieron en cuenta autores de diplomacia global y salud global. La búsqueda se hace en PubMed, en LILACS y en Google Scholar con las palabras clave: “salud global” y “global health”. Varios enfoques académicos se han perfilado acerca de la salud global por parte de centros de formación e investigación, según diferentes países. A su vez, emergen varios intereses y orientaciones ideológicas, detrás del concepto de salud global. Se concluye del variopinto mosaico de centros de salud global y sus posturas, que el nuevo concepto va tras la construcción de un paradigma de renovación en la salud internacional y en la salud mundial, que en su estadio pre-paradigmático no encuentra todavía una versión final.

In order to identify perspectives on global health, this essay analyzes different trends from academia that have enriched global health and international health. A database was constructed with information from the world’s leading global health centers. The search covered authors on global diplomacy and global health and was performed in PubMed, LILACS, and Google Scholar with the key words “global health” and “international health”. Research and training centers in different countries have taken various academic approaches to global health; various interests and ideological orientations have emerged in relation to the global health concept. Based on the mosaic of global health centers and their positions, the review concludes that the new concept reflects the construction of a paradigm of renewal in international health and global health, the pre-paradigmatic stage of which has still not reached a final version.

Visando estabelecer perspectivas da saúde global, este ensaio analisa diferentes tendências que enriqueceram, do ponto de vista acadêmico, a saúde global e internacional. Foi construída uma base de dados com informações sobre os principais e mais importantes centros de saúde global no mundo. Para a pesquisa, foram considerados autores de diplomacia global e de saúde global. A busca foi feita através de PubMed, LILACS e Google Scholar, com as seguintes palavras-chaves: “salud global” e “global health”. Vários enfoques acadêmicos surgiram a respeito da saúde global, por parte de centros de ensino e pesquisa, em diversos países. Por sua vez, destacam-se vários interesses e orientações ideológicas, por trás do conceito de saúde global. O mosaico multifacetado dos centros de saúde global e de suas propostas sugere que esse novo conceito vai além da construção de um paradigma de renovação na saúde internacional e na saúde mundial, e que, em fase pré-paradigmática, ele ainda não encontrou uma versão final.