Non-consensus GLI binding sites in Hedgehog target gene regulation.

BACKGROUND: The GLI transcription factors, mediators of the hedgehog signal bind with high affinity to the consensus sequence GACCACCCA. The affinity of variant single substitutions in GLI binding sites has been measured systematically, but the affinities of the variant binding sites appears low compared to the frequency of occurrence of variant sites in known GLI target gene promoters. RESULTS: We quantified transcriptional activation by GLI using PTCH1 promoter based luciferase reporters containing all single substitutions of the GLI consensus binding site. As expected variants with very low affinity did not activate the reporter. Many lower affinity binding sequences are, however, functional in the presence of moderate GLI concentration. Using two natural non-consensus GLI site promoters we showed that substitution of the variant sequences by consensus leads to comparable activity. CONCLUSIONS: Variant GLI binding sites with relatively low affinity can within natural promoters lead to strong transcriptional activation. This may facilitate the identification of additional direct GLI target genes.

GLI1 repression of ERK activity correlates with colony formation and impaired migration in human epidermal keratinocytes.

Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) of the skin is a highly compact, non-metastatic epithelial tumour type that may arise from the aberrant propagation of epidermal or progenitor stem cell (SC) populations. Increased expression of GLI1 is a common feature of BCC and is linked to the induction of epidermal SC markers in immortalized N/Tert-1 keratinocytes. Here, we demonstrate that GLI1 over-expression is linked to additional SC characteristics in N/Tert-1 cells including reduced epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) expression and compact colony formation that is associated with repressed extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activity. Colony formation and repressed ERK activity remain evident when EGFR is increased exogenously to the basal levels in GLI1 cells revealing that ERK is additionally inhibited downstream of the receptor. Exposure to epidermal growth factor (EGF) to increase ERK activity and promote migration negates GLI1 colony formation with cells displaying an elongated, fibroblast-like morphology. However, as determined by Snail messenger RNA and E-cadherin protein expression this is not associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and GLI1 actually represses induction of the EMT marker vimentin in EGF-stimulated cells. Instead, live cell imaging revealed that the elongated morphology of EGF/GLI1 keratinocytes stems from their being 'stretched' due to migrating cells displaying inefficient cell-cell detachment and impaired tail retraction. Taken together, these data suggest that GLI1 opposes EGFR signalling to maintain the epithelial phenotype. Finally, ERK activity was predominantly negative in 13/14 BCCs (superficial/nodular), indicating that GLI1 does not routinely co-operate with ERK to induce the formation of this common skin tumour.

Efficient manipulation of Hedgehog/GLI signaling using retroviral expression systems.

Efficient manipulation of Hedgehog (HH)/GLI signaling activity is crucial to the analysis of molecular events underlying HH/GLI-regulated cell fate determination and tumor growth. In this article, we describe the use of retroviral expression systems as a valuable tool to activate or repress Hh-pathway activity in a broad spectrum of mammalian cells-including human cells-either by forced expression of the major Hedgehog-effectors GLI1 and GLI2 or by expression of the short-hairpin RNAs-targeting GLI mRNAs. We focus on two distinct retroviral systems that allow efficient and sustainable expression of GLI proteins in primary cells and cell lines of human origin: (i) a Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus-based and (ii) an HIV-derived lentivirus expression system, which allows transduction of both dividing and quiescent cells.

GLI transcription factors: mediators of oncogenic Hedgehog signalling.

The current concept of tumourigenesis holds that cancer results from the progressive acquisition of mutations that endow affected cells with selective growth advantages by activating multiple processes including intrinsic mitogenic and pro-survival pathways. Constitutive activation of the Hedgehog (HH)/GLI signalling cascade has recently been implicated in the growth of a number of human malignancies ranging from semi-malignant tumours of the skin to highly aggressive cancers of the brain, lung, pancreas and prostate. This review focuses on the role of the GLI zinc finger transcription factors, which mediate Hedgehog signalling at the distal end of the pathway. We summarise recent data on the mechanisms by which latent GLI proteins are activated in response to stimulation of Hedgehog signalling. Based on the identification of a growing number of direct GLI target genes, we propose that HH-driven tumourigenesis relies on multiple cellular processes such as promotion of G1/S phase progression, enhancement of cell survival by providing anti-apoptotic cues, increase in metastatic potential of Hedgehog responsive cells, and activation of potential tumour stem cells. In view of the critical role of GLI genes in Hedgehog-associated cancers, strategies that aim at interfering with GLI function are likely to represent efficient approaches in future targeted cancer therapy.

Activation of the BCL2 promoter in response to Hedgehog/GLI signal transduction is predominantly mediated by GLI2.

Aberrant activation of the Hedgehog (HH)/GLI signaling pathway has been implicated in the development of basal cell carcinoma (BCC). The zinc finger transcription factors GLI1 and GLI2 are considered mediators of the HH signal in epidermal cells, although their tumorigenic nature and their relative contribution to tumorigenesis are only poorly understood. To shed light on the respective role of these transcription factors in epidermal neoplasia, we screened for genes preferentially regulated either by GLI1 or GLI2 in human epidermal cells. We show here that expression of the key antiapoptotic factor BCL2 is predominantly activated by GLI2 compared with GLI1. Detailed promoter analysis and gel shift assays identified three GLI binding sites in the human BCL2 cis-regulatory region. We found that one of these binding sites is critical for conferring GLI2-specific activation of the human BCL2 promoter and that the selective induction of BCL2 expression depends on the zinc finger DNA binding domain of GLI2. In vivo, GLI2 and BCL2 were coexpressed in the outer root sheath of hair follicles and BCC and in plasma cells that infiltrated BCC tumor islands. On the basis of the latter observation, we analyzed plasma cell-derived tumors and found strong expression of GLI2 and BCL2 in neoplastic cells of plasmacytoma patients, implicating HH/GLI signaling in the development of plasma cell-derived malignancies. The results reveal a central role for GLI2 in activating the prosurvival factor BCL2, which may represent an important mechanism in the development or maintenance of cancers associated with inappropriate HH signaling.

The zinc-finger transcription factor GLI2 antagonizes contact inhibition and differentiation of human epidermal cells.

In stratified epidermis, activation of the Hh/Gli signal transduction pathway has been implicated in the control of cell proliferation and tumorigenesis. The zinc-finger transcription factor Gli2 has been identified as critical mediator of the Hh signal at the distal end of the pathway, but the molecular mechanisms by which Gli2 regulates cell proliferation or induces epidermal malignancies such as basal cell carcinoma are still unclear. Here, we provide evidence for a role of human GLI2 in antagonizing contact inhibition and epidermal differentiation. We show by gene expression profiling that activation of the GLI2 oncogene in human keratinocytes activates the transcription of a number of genes involved in cell cycle progression such as E2F1, CCND1, CDC2 and CDC45L, while it represses genes associated with epidermal differentiation. Analysis of the proliferative effect of GLI2 revealed that GLI2 is able to induce G1-S phase progression in contact-inhibited keratinocytes. Detailed time-course experiments identified E2F1 as early transcriptional target of GLI2. Further, we show that GLI2 expression in human keratinocytes results in a marked downregulation of epidermal differentiation markers. The data suggest a role for GLI2 in Hh-induced epidermal neoplasia by opposing epithelial cell cycle arrest signals and epidermal differentiation.

Human GLI2 and GLI1 are part of a positive feedback mechanism in Basal Cell Carcinoma.

Transgenic mouse models have provided evidence that activation of the zinc-finger transcription factor GLI1 by Hedgehog (Hh)-signalling is a key step in the initiation of the tumorigenic programme leading to Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC). However, the downstream events underlying Hh/GLI-induced BCC development are still obscure. Using in vitro model systems to analyse the effect of Hh/GLI-signalling in human keratinocytes, we identified a positive feedback mechanism involving the zinc finger transcription factors GLI1 and GLI2. Expression of GLI1 in human keratinocytes induced the transcriptional activator isoforms GLI2alpha and GLI2beta. Both isoforms were also shown to be expressed at elevated levels in 21 BCCs compared to normal skin. Detailed time course experiments monitoring the transcriptional response of keratinocytes either to GLI1 or to GLI2 suggest that GLI1 is a direct target of GLI2, while activation of GLI2 by GLI1 is likely to be indirect. Furthermore, expression of either GLI2 or GLI1 led to an increase in DNA-synthesis in confluent human keratinocytes. Taken together, these results suggest an important role of the positive GLI1-GLI2 feedback loop in Hh-mediated epidermal cell proliferation.

FOXE1, a new transcriptional target of GLI2 is expressed in human epidermis and basal cell carcinoma.

Sonic hedgehog (Hh) signaling plays a key role in epidermal development and skin cancer. Mutational inactivation of the tumor suppressor gene patched (PTCH) leads to constitutive activation of the Hh signaling pathway, resulting in activation of target gene transcription by the zinc finger transcription factors GLI1 and GLI2. Recent experiments in mice point to GLI2 as the key mediator of Hh signaling in skin. We have concentrated on the identification of candidate mediators of GLI2 function in the human epidermis. We show here that the forkhead/winged-helix domain transcription factor FOXE1 is likely to be a direct GLI2 target gene. The kinetics of FOXE1 induction are similar to the known direct target PTCH, and a 2.5 kb upstream fragment containing five GLI-binding sites activates transcription in a reporter assay. We show by in situ hybridization that FOXE1 is expressed in the outer root sheath of the hair follicle, where murine Gli2 is also expressed. FOXE1 expression is also found in basal keratinocytes of the human epidermis and basal cell carcinoma (BCC). These data point to a putative role of FOXE1 in mediating Hh signaling in the human epidermis downstream of GLI2.

GLI2 is expressed in normal human epidermis and BCC and induces GLI1 expression by binding to its promoter.

Sonic hedgehog (Shh) binds to its receptor patched (PTCH), leading to the activation and repression of target genes via the GLI family of zinc-finger transcription factors. Deregulation of the Shh pathway is associated with basal cell carcinoma (BCC) due to upregulation of GLI1 and GLI2. We recently demonstrated a positive feedback loop between GLI1 and GLI2, which revealed that GLI1 may be a direct target of GLI2. Using band shift and luciferase reporter assays, we now show that GLI2 binds the GLI-binding consensus sequence in the GLI1 promoter. These data suggest that GLI2 directly activates GLI1 and that retrovirally expressed GLI2 induces expression of endogenous GLI1 in human primary keratinocytes. Finally, using in situ hybridization, we show that GLI2 is expressed in the interfollicular epidermis and the outer root sheath of hair follicles in normal skin as well as in BCC tumor islands. These results suggest an important role for GLI2 in regulating epidermal proliferation and skin tumorigenesis.

Gene expression pattern following photodynamic treatment of the carcinoma cell line A-431 analysed by cDNA arrays.

The photosensitizer protoporphyrin IX, endogenously accumulated from the precursor aminolevulinic acid, is a successful agent in photodynamic tumor therapy. In spite of encouraging clinical results, the basic mechanisms leading to cell death are not fully understood. We therefore set out to analyse the alteration of the gene expression pattern in the squamous cell carcinoma cell line A-431 after photodynamic treatment with endogenous protoporphyrin IX. Radioactively labelled cDNAs from untreated and treated cells were hybridized onto UniGene cDNA array filters containing lysed bacterial colonies with inserts representing approximately 32000 different human transcripts. Differentially expressed genes were identified and verified on sub-arrays containing only the candidate genes. We found increased expression of heat shock protein 70 and of the immediate early genes p55-c-fos and c-jun, may be due to oxidative stress and increased levels of intracellular calcium after photoactivation of protoporphyrin IX. Increased expression of heme oxygenase-1 following dark incubation was not further increased by irradiation and therefore probably caused by the need for heme degradation. Presumably heat shock protein 70 and heme oxygenase-1 serve for cell protection. Though similar results have been found for photodynamic treatment with external porphyrin-based photosensitizers, this is the first report about induction of the genes described above by (photoactivated) endogenous protoporphyrin IX.

An old friend with new skills: Imiquimod as novel inhibitor of Hedgehog signaling in basal cell carcinoma.

Deregulated Hedgehog (HH)/GLI signaling plays an etiologic role in the initiation, progression and maintenance of many cancers. Small molecule targeting of HH signaling by inhibiting the essential pathway effector Smoothened (SMO) has proven exceptionally efficient for the treatment of advanced and metastatic basal cell carcinoma. That said, severe side effects, limited response rates, SMO-independent GLI signaling and rapid development of drug resistance limit the therapeutic success of SMO antagonists, urgently calling for the identification of alternative and additional strategies repressing oncogenic HH signaling. In this perspective article we highlight recent findings showing that the Toll-like receptor-7/8 (TLR7/8) agonist imiquimod (IMQ), an immune modulator approved for the treatment of basal cell carcinoma, can also act as a potent cell autonomous inhibitor of oncogenic HH signaling. Surprisingly, IMQ reduces HH signal strength independent of TLR signaling, via adenosine receptor (ADORA)/Adenylate cyclase (AC)/Protein kinase A (PKA) activation. We here highlight the molecular mechanisms of IMQ-mediated repression of HH/GLI and discuss the possible benefits as well as challenges of using ADORA agonists for the treatment of HH-associated cancer.

Hedgehog/GLI signaling activates suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1) in epidermal and neural tumor cells.

Sustained hedgehog (Hh) signaling mediated by the GLI transcription factors is implicated in many types of cancer. Identification of Hh/GLI target genes modulating the activity of other pathways involved in tumor development promise to open new ways for better understanding of tumor development and maintenance. Here we show that SOCS1 is a direct target of Hh/GLI signaling in human keratinocytes and medulloblastoma cells. SOCS1 is a potent inhibitor of interferon gamma (IFN-y)/STAT1 signaling. IFN-у/STAT1 signaling can induce cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and anti-tumor immunity. The transcription factors GLI1 and GLI2 activate the SOCS1 promoter, which contains five putative GLI binding sites, and GLI2 binding to the promoter was shown by chromatin immunoprecipitation. Consistent with a role of GLI in SOCS1 regulation, STAT1 phosphorylation is reduced in cells with active Hh/GLI signaling and IFN-у/STAT1 target gene activation is decreased. Furthermore, IFN-у signaling is restored by shRNA mediated knock down of SOCS1. Here, we identify SOCS1 as a novel Hh/GLI target gene, indicating a negative role of Hh/GLI pathway in IFN-y/STAT1 signaling.

GLI2-specific transcriptional activation of the bone morphogenetic protein/activin antagonist follistatin in human epidermal cells.

Hedgehog (HH) signaling in the epidermis is primarily mediated by the zinc finger transcription factors GLI1 and GLI2. Exquisite regulation of HH/GLI signaling is crucial for proper specification of the epidermal lineage and development of its derivatives, whereas dysregulation of HH/GLI signaling disrupts tissue homeostasis and causes basal cell carcinoma (BCC). Similarly, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and activins have been described as key signaling factors in the complex regulation of epidermal fate decisions, although their precise interplay with HH/GLI is largely elusive. Here we show that, in human epidermal cells, expression of the activin/BMP antagonist follistatin (FST) is predominantly up-regulated by the HH effector GLI2. Consistently, we found strong FST expression in the outer root sheath of human hair follicles and BCC. Detailed promoter analysis showed that two sequences with homology to the GLI consensus binding site are required for GLI2-mediated activation. Interestingly, activation of the FST promoter is highly GLI2-specific, because neither GLI1 nor GLI3 can significantly increase FST transcription. GLI2 specificity requires the presence of a 518-bp fragment in the proximal FST promoter region. On the protein level, sequences C-terminal to the zinc finger are responsible for GLI2-specific activation of FST transcription, pointing to the existence of GLI-interacting cofactors that modulate GLI target specificity. Our results reveal a key role of GLI2 in activation of the activin/BMP antagonist FST in response to HH signaling and provide new evidence for a regulatory interaction between HH and activin/BMP signaling in hair follicle development and BCC.

Expression profiling of vitamin D treated primary human keratinocytes.

Vitamin D has attracted much attention by its ability to stop cell proliferation and induce differentiation, which became of particular interest for the treatment of cancer and psoriasis. We performed an expression profile of 12 hours and 24 hours 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)) treated primary human keratinocytes, to determine the changes in gene expression induced by the steroid in order to improve our understanding of the biological activity of 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3). This we expect to be useful for establishing a test system for vitamin D analogs or might open new therapeutic targets or uses for the hormone. For the filter array experiments a non-redundant set of 2135 sequence verified EST clones was used. The normalized raw data of 2 filters per time point were combined and subjected to SAM analysis to further increase the statistical significance. 86 positive and 50 negative genes were identified after 12 h. The numbers went down to 43 positive and 1 negative gene after 24 h of treatment. Fifteen genes are up-regulated over a longer period of time (12 h and 24 h). Results were verified by real-time PCR and/or Northern blots. Targets identified are involved in intracellular signaling, transcription, cell cycle, metabolism, cellular growth, constitution of the extracellular matrix or the cytoskeleton and apoptosis, immune responses, and DNA repair, respectively. Expression profiles showed an initial stop of proliferation and induction of differentiation, and resumed proliferation after prolonged incubation, most likely due to degradation of the hormone.

Overlapping and distinct transcriptional regulator properties of the GLI1 and GLI2 oncogenes.

The GLI transcription factors mediate the hedgehog signal in development and carcinogenesis. Basal cell carcinoma can be caused by overexpression of either GLI1 or GLI2. Though GLI1 and GLI2 have identical or very similar DNA binding specificities, some of their activities are overlapping, some are clearly distinct. We analyzed target gene specificities of GLI1 and constitutively active GLI2 (GLI2DeltaN) by global expression profiling in an inducible, well-characterized HaCaT keratinocyte expression system. Four hundred fifty-six genes up- or downregulated at least twofold were identified. GLI target gene profiles correlated well with the biological activities of these transcription factors in hair follicles and basal cell carcinoma. Upregulation of largely overlapping sets of target genes was effected by both factors, repression occurred predominantly in response to GLI2. Also, significant quantitative differences in response to GLI1 and GLI2DeltaN were found for a small number of activated genes. Since we have not detected a putative processed GLI2 repressor, these results point to specific but indirect target gene repression by GLI2DeltaN via preferential activation of one or more negative regulators.

RNA expression profiling at the single molecule level.

We developed a microarray platform for PCR amplification-independent expression profiling of minute samples. A novel scanning system combined with specialized biochips enables detection down to individual fluorescent oligonucleotide molecules specifically hybridized to their complementary sequence over the entire biochip surface of cm2 size. A detection limit of 1.3 fM target oligonucleotide concentration--corresponding to only 39,000 molecules in the sample solution--and a dynamic range of 4.7 orders of magnitude have been achieved. The applicability of the system to PCR amplification-independent gene-expression profiling of minute samples was demonstrated by complex hybridization of cDNA derived from the equivalent of only 10(4) cells, which matches results obtained in ensemble studies on large samples. By counting each hybridized molecule on the microarray, the method is insusceptible to gene-specific variations of the labeling, thereby representing a principle advance to conventional ensemble-based microarray analysis.

Comparative analysis of the alpha-like globin clusters in mouse, rat, and human chromosomes indicates a mechanism underlying breaks in conserved synteny.

We have sequenced and fully annotated a 65,871-bp region of mouse Chromosome 17 including the Hba-ps4 alpha-globin pseudogene. Comparative sequence analysis with the functional alpha-globin loci at human Chromosome 16p13.3 and mouse Chromosome 11 shows that this segment of mouse Chromosome 17 contains a group of three alpha-like pseudogenes (Hba-psm-Hba-ps4-Hba-q3), similar to the duplicated sets found at the functional mouse cluster on Chromosome 11. In addition, exons 7 to 12 of the mLuc7L gene are present just downstream from the pseudogene cluster, indicating that this clone contains the region in which human 16p13.3 switches in synteny between mouse Chromosomes 11 and 17. Comparison of the sequences around the alpha-like clusters on the two mouse chromosomes reveals the presence of conserved tandem repeats. We propose that these repetitive elements have played a role in the fragmentation of the mouse alpha cluster during evolution.

IL-4 and IL-13 induce SOCS-1 gene expression in A549 cells by three functional STAT6-binding motifs located upstream of the transcription initiation site.

Proteins of the suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) family have important functions as negative regulators of cytokine signaling. We show here that SOCS-1 expression can be induced in the human epithelial lung cell line A549 by IL-4 and IL-13. Analysis of reporter gene constructs under control of the SOCS-1 promoter provides evidence that IL-4- and IL-13-induced up-regulation is dependent on three IFN-gamma-activated sequence motifs of the sequence TTC(N)(4)GAA, which is known for binding STAT6. The three motifs are situated close to each other approximately 600 bp upstream of the transcriptional initiation site. When mutations were inserted into all three IFN-gamma-activated sequence motifs at the same time, IL-4-IL-13-induced luciferase activity was abrogated. With single and double mutants, promoter activity was diminished in comparison with the wild-type promoter. STAT6 is therefore required for IL-4-IL-13-dependent SOCS-1 expression in A549 cells, and the three identified binding motifs cooperate to induce maximal transcription. EMSAs conducted with nuclear extracts of IL-4- and IL-13-stimulated A549 cells showed that STAT6 was able to bind to each of the three binding motifs. Finally, cotransfection of a SOCS-1 expression vector inhibited activation of SOCS-1 promoter luciferase constructs. Thus, SOCS-1 is able to autoregulate its expression via a negative feedback loop.

Polycystin-1 activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase and AP-1 is mediated by heterotrimeric G proteins.

Functional analysis of polycystin-1, the product of the gene most frequently mutated in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease, has revealed that this protein is involved in the regulation of diverse signaling pathways such as the activation of the transcription factor AP-1 and modulation of Wnt signaling. However, the initial steps involved in the activation of such cascades have remained unclear. We demonstrated previously that the C-terminal cytosolic tail of polycystin-1 binds and activates heterotrimeric G proteins in vitro. To test if polycystin-1 can activate cellular signaling cascades via heterotrimeric G protein subunits, polycystin-1 C-terminal tail-mediated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and AP-1 activities were assayed in transiently transfected 293T cells in the presence of dominant-negative, G protein inhibiting constructs, and in the presence of cotransfected Galpha subunits. The results showed that polycystin-1-mediated JNK/AP-1 activation is mediated by Galpha and Gbetagamma subunits. Polycystin-1-mediated AP-1 activity could be significantly augmented by cotransfected Galpha(i), Galpha(q), and Galpha(12/13) subunits, suggesting that polycystin-1 can couple with and activate several heterotrimeric G protein families.

Cell-type and donor-specific transcriptional responses to interferon-alpha. Use of customized gene arrays.

A sensitive, specific, reproducible, robust, and cost-effective customized cDNA array system based on established nylon membrane technology has been developed for convenient multisample expression profiling for several hundred genes of choice. The genes represented are easily adjusted (depending on the availability of corresponding cDNAs) and the method is accordingly readily applicable to a wide variety of systems. Here we have focused on the expression profiles for interferon-alpha2a, the most widely used interferon for the treatment of viral hepatitis and malignancies, in primary cells (peripheral blood mononuclear cells, T cells, and dendritic cells) and cell lines (Kit255, HT1080, HepG2, and HuH7). Of 150 genes studied, only six were consistently induced in all cell types and donors, whereas 74 genes were induced in at least one cell type. IRF-7 was identified as the only gene exclusively induced in the hematopoietic cells. No gene was exclusively induced in the nonhematopoietic cell lines. In T cells 12, and in dendritic cells, 25 genes were induced in all donors whereas 45 and 42 genes, respectively, were induced in at least one donor. The data suggest that signaling through IFN-alpha2 can be substantially modulated to yield significant cell-type and donor-specific qualitative and quantitative differences in gene expression in response to this cytokine under highly standardized conditions.