KINFix--A formalin-free non-commercial fixative optimized for histological, immunohistochemical and molecular analyses of neurosurgical tissue specimens.

An optimal fixative should ideally combine the advantages of formalin fixation and freezing, allowing for good preservation of histology and molecular components, easy handling and storage, lack of toxicity, and low costs. Most of these criteria are fulfilled by ethanol-based solutions, and due to our good experience with the commercial RCL2 fixative, reflected by our published single-center trial, we initiated a multicenter ring trial. However, during its course, RCL2 was discontinued on the market. Therefore, we created our own agent, KINFix, composed of the same main constituents as RCL2, and employed it in our laboratory with similar results. Here we present our evaluation of the three fixatives formalin, RCL2, and KINFix from the perspective of histopathology as well as nucleic acid and protein analyses in comparison to fresh frozen tissues together with the multicenter ring trial data for RCL2. We observe that RCL2 and KINFix offer comparable histomorphology and superior template for molecular analyses than formalin. Moreover, KINFix as freely available fixative might overcome some of the difficulties related to the commercial agents. Therefore, we conclude that KINFix might be an attractive complement to formalin in tissue processing and advocate its use in neuropathological practice.

Bis- and Tetrakis(carboxylato)platinum(IV) complexes with mixed axial ligands - synthesis, characterization, and cytotoxicity.

A series of twelve novel diamminetetrakis(carboxylato)platinum(IV) and 18 novel bis(carboxylato)dichlorido(ethane-1,2-diamine)platinum(IV) complexes with mixed axial carboxylato ligands was synthesized and characterized by multinuclear (1) H-, (13) C-, (15) N-, and (195) Pt-NMR spectroscopy. Their cytotoxic potential was evaluated (by MTT assay) against three human cancer cell lines derived from ovarian teratocarcinoma (CH1/PA-1), lung (A549), and colon carcinoma (SW480). In the cisplatin-sensitive CH1/PA-1 cancer cell line, diamminetetrakis(carboxylato)platinum(IV) complexes showed IC50 values in the low micromolar range, whereas, for the most lipophilic compounds of the bis(carboxylato)dichlorido(ethane-1,2-diamine)platinum(IV) series, IC50 values in the nanomolar range were found.

Anticancer activity of methyl-substituted oxaliplatin analogs.

Oxaliplatin is successfully used in systemic cancer therapy. However, resistance development and severe adverse effects are limiting factors for curative cancer treatment with oxaliplatin. The purpose of this study was to comparatively investigate in vitro and in vivo anticancer properties as well as the adverse effects of two methyl-substituted enantiomerically pure oxaliplatin analogs [[(1R,2R,4R)-4-methyl-1,2-cyclohexanediamine] oxalatoplatinum(II) (KP1537), and [(1R,2R,4S)-4-methyl-1,2-cyclohexanediamine]oxalatoplatinum(II) (KP1691)] and to evaluate the impact of stereoisomerism. Although the novel oxaliplatin analogs demonstrated in multiple aspects activities comparable with those of the parental compound, several key differences were discovered. The analogs were characterized by reduced vulnerability to resistance mechanisms such as p53 mutations, reduced dependence on immunogenic cell death induction, and distinctly attenuated adverse effects including weight loss and cold hyperalgesia. Stereoisomerism of the substituted methyl group had a complex and in some aspects even contradictory impact on drug accumulation and anticancer activity both in vitro and in vivo. To summarize, methyl-substituted oxaliplatin analogs harbor improved therapeutic characteristics including significantly reduced adverse effects. Hence, they might be promising metal-based anticancer drug candidates for further (pre)clinical evaluation.

Diamminetetrakis(carboxylato)platinum(IV) complexes--synthesis, characterization, and cytotoxicity.

A series of eight novel diamminetetrakis(carboxylato)platinum(IV) complexes was synthesized and characterized by multinuclear (1)H-, (13)C-, (15)N-, and (195)Pt-NMR spectroscopy. Their antiproliferative potency was evaluated in three human cancer cell lines representing ovarian (CH1), lung (A549), and colon carcinoma (SW480). In cisplatin-sensitive CH1 cancer cells, cytotoxicity was found in the low micromolar range, whereas, in inherently cisplatin-resistant A549 and SW480 cells, the activity was very low or negligible. Astonishingly, raise in lipophilicity of the complexes, as found in the case of cisplatin analogs, did not result in a significant enhancement of the cytotoxic effect.

Water-soluble cationic derivatives of indirubin, the active anticancer component from Indigo naturalis.

To overcome the problem of poor aqueous solubility and bioavailability of indirubin-3-oximes, the compounds were modified by attaching a quaternary ammonium group at the oxime moiety. Exploring the prodrug concept, an oxime ester with acetyl-l-carnitine was prepared, and the rate of its hydrolysis was investigated to assess its suitability for clinical administration. In addition, the cytotoxic potency of new stable oxime ethers with a choline moiety and their influence on the cell cycle were tested in human cancer cell lines.

The first example of MEEKC-ICP-MS coupling and its application for the analysis of anticancer platinum complexes.

MEEKC is a powerful electrodriven separation technique with many applications in different disciplines, including medicinal chemistry; however, up to now the coupling to highly sensitive and selective MS detectors was limited due to the ion suppressive effect of the commonly used surfactant SDS. Herein, the first example of the coupling of MEEKC to ICP-MS is presented and an MEEKC method for the separation of Pt(II) and Pt(IV) anticancer drugs and drug candidates was developed. Different compositions of microemulsions were evaluated and the data were compared with those collected with standard ultraviolet/visible (UV/vis) spectroscopy detection. The MEEKC-ICP-MS system was found to be more sensitive than MEEKC-UV/vis and the analysis of UV/vis silent compounds is now achievable. The migration behavior of the Pt(II) and Pt(IV) compounds under investigation is correlated to their different chemical structures.

Novel endothall-containing platinum(IV) complexes: synthesis, characterization, and cytotoxic activity.

Two platinum(IV) complexes (OC-6-33)-dichlorido(ethane-1,2-diamine)dihydroxidoplatinum(IV) and (OC-6-33)-diammine(dichlorido)dihydroxidoplatinum(IV) were carboxylated using demethylcantharidin as carboxylation agent. The complexes were characterized by elemental analysis, mass spectrometry, multinuclear (1H, 13C, 15N, and 195Pt) NMR spectroscopy, and, in case of (OC-6-33)-diamminebis(3-carboxy-7exo-oxabicyclo[2.2.1]heptane-2-carboxylato)dichloridoplatinum(IV) via X-ray diffraction. Cytotoxicity of the complexes was studied in seven human cancer cell lines representing five tumor entities, i.e., ovarian carcinoma (CH1, SK-OV-3), cervical carcinoma (HeLa), colon carcinoma (SW480, HCT-116), osteosarcoma (U-2 OS), and hepatocellular carcinoma (Hep G2) by means of the MTT (=3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium hydrobromide) assay.

Influence of the Number of Axial Bexarotene Ligands on the Cytotoxicity of Pt(IV) Analogs of Oxaliplatin.

We present the synthesis and cytotoxic potencies of new Pt(IV) complexes with bexarotene, an anticancer drug that induces cell differentiation and apoptosis via selective activation of retinoid X receptors. In these complexes bexarotene is positioned as an axial ligand. The complex of one bexarotene ligand attached to Pt(IV) oxaliplatin moiety was potent whereas its counterpart carrying two bexarotene ligands was inactive.

LA-ICP-MS imaging in multicellular tumor spheroids - a novel tool in the preclinical development of metal-based anticancer drugs.

A novel application of advanced elemental imaging offers cutting edge in vitro assays with more predictive power on the efficacy of anticancer drugs in preclinical development compared to two dimensional cell culture models. We propose LA-ICP-MS analysis of multicellular spheroids, which are increasingly being used as three dimensional (3D) models of tumors, for improving the in vitro evaluation of anticancer metallodrugs. The presented strategy is very well suited for screening drug-tumor penetration, a key issue for drug efficacy. A major advantage of tumor spheroid models is that they enable us to create a tissue-like structure and function. With respect to 2D culture on the one hand and in vivo models on the other, multicellular spheroids thus show intermediate complexity, still allowing high repeatability and adequate through-put for drug research. This strongly argues for the use of spheroids as bridging models in preclinical anticancer drug development. Probing the lateral platinum distribution within these tumor models allows visualizing the penetration depth and targeting of platinum-based complexes. In the present study, we show for the first time that spatially-resolved metal accumulation in tumor spheroids upon treatment with platinum compounds can be appropriately assessed. The optimized LA-ICP-MS setup allowed discerning the platinum localization in different regions of the tumor spheroids upon compound treatment at biologically relevant (low micromolar) concentrations. Predominant platinum accumulation was observed at the periphery as well as in the center of the spheroids. This corresponds to the proliferating outermost layers of cells and the necrotic core, respectively, indicating enhanced platinum sequestration in these regions.

Behavior of platinum(iv) complexes in models of tumor hypoxia: cytotoxicity, compound distribution and accumulation.

Hypoxia in solid tumors remains a challenge for conventional cancer therapeutics. As a source for resistance, metastasis development and drug bioprocessing, it influences treatment results and disease outcome. Bioreductive platinum(iv) prodrugs might be advantageous over conventional metal-based therapeutics, as biotransformation in a reductive milieu, such as under hypoxia, is required for drug activation. This study deals with a two-step screening of experimental platinum(iv) prodrugs with different rates of reduction and lipophilicity with the aim of identifying the most appropriate compounds for further investigations. In the first step, the cytotoxicity of all compounds was compared in hypoxic multicellular spheroids and monolayer culture using a set of cancer cell lines with different sensitivities to platinum(ii) compounds. Secondly, two selected compounds were tested in hypoxic xenografts in SCID mouse models in comparison to satraplatin, and, additionally, (LA)-ICP-MS-based accumulation and distribution studies were performed for these compounds in hypoxic spheroids and xenografts. Our findings suggest that, while cellular uptake and cytotoxicity strongly correlate with lipophilicity, cytotoxicity under hypoxia compared to non-hypoxic conditions and antitumor activity of platinum(iv) prodrugs are dependent on their rate of reduction.

Influence of reducing agents on the cytotoxic activity of platinum(IV) complexes: induction of G2/M arrest, apoptosis and oxidative stress in A2780 and cisplatin resistant A2780cis cell lines.

The concept of Pt(IV) prodrug design is one advanced strategy to increase the selectivity for cancer cells and to reduce systemic toxicity in comparison to established platinum-based chemotherapy. Pt(IV) complexes are thought to be activated by reduction via physiological reductants, such as ascorbic acid or glutathione. Nevertheless, only few investigations on the link between the reduction rate, which is influenced by the reductant, and the ligand sphere of the Pt(IV) metal centre have been performed so far. Herein, we investigated a set of Pt(IV) compounds with varying rates of reduction with respect to their cytotoxicity and drug accumulation in A2780 and A2780cis ovarian cancer cell lines, their influence on the cell cycle, efficiency of triggering apoptosis, and ability to interfere with plasmid DNA (pUC19). The effects caused by Pt(IV) compounds were compared without or with extracellularly added ascorbic acid and glutathione (or its precursor N-acetylcysteine) to gain understanding of the impact of increased levels of the reductant on the activity of such complexes. Our results demonstrate that reduction is required prior to plasmid interaction. Furthermore, the rate of reduction is crucial for the efficiency of this set of Pt(IV) compounds. The substances that are reduced least likely showed similar performances, whereas the fastest reducing substance was negatively affected by an increased extracellular level of reducing agents, with reduced cytotoxicity and lower efficiency in inducing apoptosis and G2/M arrest. These results confirm the connection between reduction and activity, and prove the strong impact of the reduction site on the activity of Pt(IV) complexes.

Tumor microenvironment in focus: LA-ICP-MS bioimaging of a preclinical tumor model upon treatment with platinum(IV)-based anticancer agents.

The selection of drug candidates for entering clinical development relies on in vivo testing in (solid) tumor animal models. However, the heterogeneity of tumor tissue (e.g. in terms of drug uptake or tissue composition) is rarely considered when testing novel drug candidates. Therefore, we used the murine colon cancer CT-26 tumor model to study the spatially-resolved drug distribution in tumor tissue upon repetitive treatment of animals over two weeks with three investigational platinum(IV)-based anticancer agents, oxaliplatin or satraplatin. A quantitative laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) imaging method revealed a heterogeneous platinum distribution, which correlated well with the histologic features of the tumor and surrounding tissue at the microscopic level. In most of the cases, higher amounts of intratumoral platinum were found in the surrounding tissue than in the malignant parts of the sample. This indicates that determination of average platinum amounts (e.g. by microwave-assisted digestion of the sample followed by analysis with ICP-MS) might overestimate the drug uptake in tumor tissue causing misleading conclusions. In addition, we studied the platinum distribution in the kidneys of treated animals to probe if accumulation in the cortex and medulla predict potential nephrotoxicity. A 10-fold increase of platinum in the cortex of the kidney over the medulla was observed for oxaliplatin and satraplatin. Although these findings are similar to those in the platinum distribution of the nephrotoxic anticancer drug cisplatin, treatment with the compounds of our study did not show signs of nephrotoxicity in clinical use or clinical trials (oxaliplatin, satraplatin) and did not result in the alteration of renal structures. Thus, predicting the side effects based on bioimaging data by LA-ICP-MS should be considered with caution. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first LA-ICP-MS study on spatially-resolved platinum accumulation in tissues after repetitive platinum-based anticancer drug treatment of mice bearing a preclinical tumor model.

Ionic liquids for extraction of metals and metal containing compounds from communal and industrial waste water.

In a fundamental study the potential of ionic liquids based on quaternary ammonium- and phosphonium cations and thiol-, thioether-, hydroxyl-, carboxylate- and thiocyanate-functionalized anions has been assessed for future application in advanced sewage treatment. The elimination of the metal(oid)s Ag, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Pt, Sn, Zn and the cancerostatic platinum compounds cisplatin and carboplatin was screened using a liquid phase micro-extraction set-up. The analytical tool-set consisted of ICP-SFMS and LC-ICP-MS for quantification of metal(oid)s and cancerostatic platinum compounds, respectively. The purity of the ILs was assessed for the investigated metal(oid)s on the base of present EU environmental quality standards and was found to be sufficient for the intended use. In model solutions at environmental relevant concentrations extraction efficiencies≥95% could be obtained for Ag, Cu, Hg and Pt with both phosphonium- and ammonium-based ILs bearing sulphur functionality in the form of thiosalicylate and 2-(methylthiobenzoate) anions, as well as with tricaprylmethylammonium thiocyanate within an extraction time of 120 min. All other metals were extracted to a lower extent (7-79%). In the case of cancerostatic platinum compounds a phosphonium-based IL bearing thiosalicylate functionality showed high extraction efficiency for monoaquacisplatin. For the first time, liquid phase micro extraction with ionic liquids was applied to industrial and communal waste water samples. The concentration of all investigated metal(oid)s could be significantly reduced. The degree of elimination varied with the initial concentration of metals, pH and the amount of suspended particulate matter.

Ruthenium- and Osmium-Arene Complexes of 2-Substituted Indolo[3,2-c]quinolines: Synthesis, Structure, Spectroscopic Properties, and Antiproliferative Activity.

The synthesis of new modified indolo[3,2-c]quinoline ligands L(1)-L(8) with metal-binding sites is reported. By coordination to ruthenium- and osmium-arene moieties 16 complexes of the type [(η(6)-p-cymene)M(L)Cl]Cl (1a,b-8a,b), where M is Ru(II) or Os(II) and L is L(1)-L(8), have been prepared. All compounds were comprehensively characterized by elemental analysis, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, IR, UV-vis, and NMR spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction (2a, 4a, 4b, 5a, 7a, and 7b). The complexes were tested for antiproliferative activity in vitro in three human cancer cell lines, namely, CH1 (ovarian carcinoma), SW480 (colon adenocarcinoma), and A549 (non-small-cell lung cancer), yielding IC(50) values in the submicromolar or low micromolar range.

In vitro anticancer activity and biologically relevant metabolization of organometallic ruthenium complexes with carbohydrate-based ligands.

The synthesis and in vitro anticancer activity of dihalogenido(eta6-p-cymene)(3,5,6-bicyclophosphite-alpha-D-glucofuranoside)ruthenium(II) complexes are described. The compounds were characterized by NMR spectroscopy and ESI mass spectrometry, and the molecular structures of dichlorido-, dibromido- and diiodido(eta6-p-cymene)(3,5,6-bicyclophosphite-1,2-O-isopropylidene-alpha-D-glucofuranoside)ruthenium(II) were determined by X-ray diffraction analysis. The complexes were shown to undergo aquation of the first halido ligand in aqueous solution, followed by hydrolysis of a P--O bond of the phosphite ligand, and finally formation of dinuclear species. The hydrolysis mechanism was confirmed by DFT calculations. The aquation of the complexes was markedly suppressed in 100 mM NaCl solution, and notably only very slow hydrolysis of the P--O bond was observed. The complexes showed affinity towards albumin and transferrin and monoadduct formation with 9-ethylguanine. In vitro studies revealed that the 3,5,6-bicyclophosphite-1,2-O-cyclohexylidene-alpha-D-glucofuranoside complex is the most cytotoxic compound in human cancer cell lines (IC50 values from 30 to 300 microM depending on the cell line).

Synthesis and in vitro antitumor potency of (cyclohexane-1,2-diamine)platinum(II) complexes with aminotris(methylenephosphonic acid) as bone-seeking ligand.

In order to develop platinum complexes with selective activity in primary and secondary bone malignancies and with the aim to optimize antitumor activity, platinum(II) complexes with aminotris(methylenephosphonic acid) as bone-seeking (osteotropic) ligand have been synthesized, characterized and tested in the cisplatin-sensitive ovarian carcinoma cell line CH1. As non-leaving diamine ligands, which are decisive for the cellular processing of DNA adducts, cis-R,S-cyclohexane-1,2-diamine, trans-S,S-cyclohexane-1,2-diamine and trans-R,R-cyclohexane-1,2-diamine have been used, resulting in complexes 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The cytotoxicity of the complexes under investigation decreases in the order 3 > 2 > 1 which is in accord with structure-activity relationships with other (cyclohexane-1,2- diamine)platinum(II) and platinum(IV) complexes: Both trans complexes (2 and 3) display a higher in vitro potency than the corresponding cis isomer (I), with the trans-R,R isomer (3) being the most active in this series. In comparison to the analogous (cyclohexane-1,2-diamine)platinum(II) complexes with bis(phosphonomethyl)aminoacetic acid as osteotropic carrier ligand, the cytotoxicity of 1-3 was found to be 1.5 - 2 fold higher, which is explainable by a different coordination mode of the phosphonic acid ligands (acetato versus phosphonato).

Analysis of platinum adducts with DNA nucleotides and nucleosides by capillary electrophoresis coupled to ESI-MS: indications of guanosine 5'-monophosphate O6-N7 chelation.

DNA is the ultimate target of platinum-based anticancer therapy. Since the N7 of guanine is known to be the major binding site of cisplatin and its analogues, adduct formation with model nucleotides, especially 2'-deoxyguanosine 5'-monophosphate (dGMP), has been studied in detail. During the last few years a coupled capillary eletrophoresis/electrospray-ionization mass spectrometry (CE/ESI-MS) method has been advantageously used in order to separate and identify platinum adducts with nucleotides in submillimolar concentrations in aqueous solutions. Beside the bisadduct, [Pt(NH(3))(2)(dNMP)(2)](2-) (NMP=2'-deoxynucleoside 5'-monophosphate), and the well-known monochloro and monohydroxo adducts, [Pt(NH(3))(2)Cl(dNMP)](-) and [Pt(NH(3))(2)(dNMP)OH](-), respectively, a third kind of monoadduct species with a composition of [Pt(NH(3))(2)(dNMP)](-) can be separated by CE and detected through the m/z values measured with ESI-MS. Different experimental setups indicate the existence of an O(6)-N7 chelate, whereas the formation of N7-alphaPO(4) macrochelates or dinuclear species is unlikely. Additionally, offline MS experiments with 2'-deoxyguanosine (dG) and stabilization of the controversially discussed O(6)-N7 chelate by oxidation with hydrogen peroxide support the assumption of the existence of O(6)-N7 chelation.

Platinum metallodrug-protein binding studies by capillary electrophoresis-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry: characterization of interactions between Pt(II) complexes and human serum albumin.

Characterizing how platinum metallocomplexes bind to human serum albumin (HSA) is essential in evaluating anticancer drug candidates. Using cisplatin as a reference complex, the application of capillary electrophoresis (CE) to reliably assess drug/HSA interactions was validated. Since this complex is small compared to the size of the protein, the binding response could only be recognized when applying CE coupled to a (platinum) metal-specific mode of detection, namely inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). This coupling allowed for confirmation of a specific affinity of cisplatin and novel Pt complexes to HSA, measurement of the kinetics of binding reactions, and determination of the number of drug molecules attached to the protein. As the cisplatin/HSA molar ratio increased, the reaction rate became faster with a maximum on the kinetic curve appearing at about 50 h of incubation at 20 times excess of cisplatin. The reaction was characterized as a pseudo-first order reaction with the rate constant k = 0.003 min(-1) at 37 degrees C. When incubated with a 20-fold excess of cisplatin, HSA bound up to 10 mol of Pt per mol of the protein. This is indicative for a strong metal-protein coordination occurring at several HSA sites other than the only protein cysteine residue. Structural analogs of cisplatin, bearing aminoalcohol ligands, showed comparable protein binding reactivity and stoichiometry but a common equilibrium was not reached even after one week of incubation. Also apparent was a two-step mechanism of the binding reaction. Results demonstrated the suitability of CE-ICP-MS as a rapid assay for high-throughput studying of drug/HSA interactions.