Phase separation-based visualization of protein-protein interactions and kinase activities in plants.

Protein activities depend heavily on protein complex formation and dynamic posttranslational modifications, such as phosphorylation. The dynamic nature of protein complex formation and posttranslational modifications is notoriously difficult to monitor in planta at cellular resolution, often requiring extensive optimization. Here, we generated and exploited the SYnthetic Multivalency in PLants (SYMPL)-vector set to assay protein-protein interactions (PPIs) (separation of phases-based protein interaction reporter) and kinase activities (separation of phases-based activity reporter of kinase) in planta, based on phase separation. This technology enabled easy detection of inducible, binary and ternary PPIs among cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins in plant cells via a robust image-based readout. Moreover, we applied the SYMPL toolbox to develop an in vivo reporter for SNF1-related kinase 1 activity, allowing us to visualize tissue-specific, dynamic SnRK1 activity in stable transgenic Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants. The SYMPL cloning toolbox provides a means to explore PPIs, phosphorylation, and other posttranslational modifications with unprecedented ease and sensitivity.

ABCB-mediated shootward auxin transport feeds into the root clock.

Although strongly influenced by environmental conditions, lateral root (LR) positioning along the primary root appears to follow obediently an internal spacing mechanism dictated by auxin oscillations that prepattern the primary root, referred to as the root clock. Surprisingly, none of the hitherto characterized PIN- and ABCB-type auxin transporters seem to be involved in this LR prepatterning mechanism. Here, we characterize ABCB15, 16, 17, 18, and 22 (ABCB15-22) as novel auxin-transporting ABCBs. Knock-down and genome editing of this genetically linked group of ABCBs caused strongly reduced LR densities. These phenotypes were correlated with reduced amplitude, but not reduced frequency of the root clock oscillation. High-resolution auxin transport assays and tissue-specific silencing revealed contributions of ABCB15-22 to shootward auxin transport in the lateral root cap (LRC) and epidermis, thereby explaining the reduced auxin oscillation. Jointly, these data support a model in which LRC-derived auxin contributes to the root clock amplitude.

A practical guide to the discovery of biomolecules with biostimulant activity.

The growing demand for sustainable solutions in agriculture, which are critical for crop productivity and food quality in the face of climate change and the need to reduce agrochemical usage, has brought biostimulants into the spotlight as valuable tools for regenerative agriculture. With their diverse biological activities, biostimulants can contribute to crop growth, nutrient use efficiency, and abiotic stress resilience, as well as to the restoration of soil health. Biomolecules include humic substances, protein lysates, phenolics, and carbohydrates have undergone thorough investigation because of their demonstrated biostimulant activities. Here, we review the process of the discovery and development of extract-based biostimulants, and propose a practical step-by-step pipeline that starts with initial identification of biomolecules, followed by extraction and isolation, determination of bioactivity, identification of active compound(s), elucidation of mechanisms, formulation, and assessment of effectiveness. The different steps generate a roadmap that aims to expedite the transfer of interdisciplinary knowledge from laboratory-scale studies to pilot-scale production in practical scenarios that are aligned with the prevailing regulatory frameworks.

A word of caution: T-DNA-associated mutagenesis in plant reproduction research.

T-DNA transformation is prevalent in Arabidopsis research and has expanded to a broad range of crops and model plants. While major progress has been made in optimizing the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation process for various species, a variety of pitfalls associated with the T-DNA insertion may lead to the misinterpretation of T-DNA mutant analysis. Indeed, secondary mutagenesis either on the integration site or elsewhere in the genome, together with epigenetic interactions between T-DNA inserts or frequent genomic rearrangements, can be tricky to differentiate from the effect of the knockout of the gene of interest. These are mainly the case for genomic rearrangements that become balanced in filial generations without consequential phenotypical defects, which may be confusing particularly for studies that aim to investigate fertility and gametogenesis. As a cautionary note to the plant research community studying gametogenesis, we here report an overview of the consequences of T-DNA-induced secondary mutagenesis with emphasis on the genomic imbalance on gametogenesis. Additionally, we present a simple guideline to evaluate the T-DNA-mutagenized transgenic lines to decrease the risk of faulty analysis with minimal experimental effort.

GH3-mediated auxin inactivation attenuates multiple stages of lateral root development.

Lateral root (LR) positioning and development rely on the dynamic interplay between auxin production, transport but also inactivation. Nonetheless, how the latter affects LR organogenesis remains largely uninvestigated. Here, we systematically analyze the impact of the major auxin inactivation pathway defined by GRETCHEN HAGEN3-type (GH3) auxin conjugating enzymes and DIOXYGENASE FOR AUXIN OXIDATION1 (DAO1) in all stages of LR development using reporters, genetics and inhibitors in Arabidopsis thaliana. Our data demonstrate that the gh3.1/2/3/4/5/6 hextuple (gh3hex) mutants display a higher LR density due to increased LR initiation and faster LR developmental progression, acting epistatically over dao1-1. Grafting and local inhibitor applications reveal that root and shoot GH3 activities control LR formation. The faster LR development in gh3hex is associated with GH3 expression domains in and around developing LRs. The increase in LR initiation is associated with accelerated auxin response oscillations coinciding with increases in apical meristem size and LR cap cell death rates. Our research reveals how GH3-mediated auxin inactivation attenuates LR development. Local GH3 expression in LR primordia attenuates development and emergence, whereas GH3 effects on pre-initiation stages are indirect, by modulating meristem activities that in turn coordinate root growth with LR spacing.

Chemical induction of hypocotyl rooting reveals extensive conservation of auxin signalling controlling lateral and adventitious root formation.

Upon exposure to light, etiolated Arabidopsis seedlings form adventitious roots (AR) along the hypocotyl. While processes underlying lateral root formation are studied intensively, comparatively little is known about the molecular processes involved in the initiation of hypocotyl AR. AR and LR formation were studied using a small molecule named Hypocotyl Specific Adventitious Root INducer (HYSPARIN) that strongly induces AR but not LR formation. HYSPARIN does not trigger rapid DR5-reporter activation, DII-Venus degradation or Ca2+ signalling. Transcriptome analysis, auxin signalling reporter lines and mutants show that HYSPARIN AR induction involves nuclear TIR1/AFB and plasma membrane TMK auxin signalling, as well as multiple downstream LR development genes (SHY2/IAA3, PUCHI, MAKR4 and GATA23). Comparison of the AR and LR induction transcriptome identified SAURs, AGC kinases and OFP transcription factors as specifically upregulated by HYSPARIN. Members of the SAUR19 subfamily, OFP4 and AGC2 suppress HYS-induced AR formation. While SAUR19 and OFP subfamily members also mildly modulate LR formation, AGC2 regulates only AR induction. Analysis of HYSPARIN-induced AR formation uncovers an evolutionary conservation of auxin signalling controlling LR and AR induction in Arabidopsis seedlings and identifies SAUR19, OFP4 and AGC2 kinase as novel regulators of AR formation.

Break-induced replication is the primary recombination pathway in plant somatic hybrid mitochondria: a model for mitochondrial horizontal gene transfer.

Somatic hybrids between distant species offer a remarkable model to study genomic recombination events after mitochondrial fusion. Recently, we described highly chimeric mitogenomes in two somatic hybrids between the Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum and Hyoscyamus niger resulting from interparental homologous recombination. To better examine the recombination map in somatic hybrid mitochondria, we developed a more sensitive bioinformatic strategy to detect recombination activity based on high-throughput sequencing without assembling the hybrid mitogenome. We generated a new intergeneric somatic hybrid between N. tabacum and Physochlaina orientalis, and re-analyzed the somatic hybrids that we previously generated. We inferred 213 homologous recombination events across repeats of 2.1 kb on average. Most of them (~80%) were asymmetrical, consistent with the break-induced replication pathway. Only rare (2.74%) non-homologous events were detected. Interestingly, independent events frequently occurred in the same regions within and across somatic hybrids, suggesting the existence of recombination hotspots in plant mitogenomes. Break-induced replication is the main pathway of interparental recombination in somatic hybrid mitochondria. Findings of this study are relevant to mitogenome editing assays and to mechanistic aspects of DNA integration following mitochondrial DNA horizontal transfer events.

Sporophytic control of pollen meiotic progression is mediated by tapetum expression of ABORTED MICROSPORES.

Pollen development is dependent on the tapetum, a sporophytic anther cell layer surrounding the microspores that functions in pollen wall formation but is also essential for meiosis-associated development. There is clear evidence of crosstalk and co-regulation between the tapetum and microspores, but how this is achieved is currently not characterized. ABORTED MICROSPORES (AMS), a tapetum transcription factor, is important for pollen wall formation, but also has an undefined role in early pollen development. We conducted a detailed investigation of chromosome behaviour, cytokinesis, radial microtubule array (RMA) organization, and callose formation in the ams mutant. Early meiosis initiates normally in ams, shows delayed progression after the pachytene stage, and then fails during late meiosis, with disorganized RMA, defective cytokinesis, abnormal callose formation, and microspore degeneration, alongside abnormal tapetum development. Here, we show that selected meiosis-associated genes are directly repressed by AMS, and that AMS is essential for late meiosis progression. Our findings indicate that AMS has a dual function in tapetum-meiocyte crosstalk by playing an important regulatory role during late meiosis, in addition to its previously characterized role in pollen wall formation. AMS is critical for RMA organization, callose deposition, and therefore cytokinesis, and is involved in the crosstalk between the gametophyte and sporophytic tissues, which enables synchronous development of tapetum and microspores.

Auxin analog-induced Ca2+ signaling is independent of inhibition of endosomal aggregation in Arabidopsis roots.

Much of what we know about the role of auxin in plant development derives from exogenous manipulations of auxin distribution and signaling, using inhibitors, auxins, and auxin analogs. In this context, synthetic auxin analogs, such as 1-naphthalene acetic acid (1-NAA), are often favored over the endogenous auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), in part due to their higher stability. While such auxin analogs have proven instrumental in revealing the various faces of auxin, they display in some cases bioactivities distinct from IAA. Here, we focused on the effect of auxin analogs on the accumulation of PIN proteins in brefeldin A-sensitive endosomal aggregations (BFA bodies), and correlation with the ability to elicit Ca2+ responses. For a set of commonly used auxin analogs, we evaluated if auxin analog-induced Ca2+ signaling inhibits PIN accumulation. Not all auxin analogs elicited a Ca2+ response, and their differential ability to elicit Ca2+ responses correlated partially with their ability to inhibit BFA-body formation. However, in tir1/afb and cngc14, 1-NAA-induced Ca2+ signaling was strongly impaired, yet 1-NAA still could inhibit PIN accumulation in BFA bodies. This demonstrates that TIR1/AFB-CNGC14-dependent Ca2+ signaling does not inhibit BFA body formation in Arabidopsis roots.

Genetic Dissection of Light-Regulated Adventitious Root Induction in Arabidopsis thaliana Hypocotyls.

Photomorphogenic responses of etiolated seedlings include the inhibition of hypocotyl elongation and opening of the apical hook. In addition, dark-grown seedlings respond to light by the formation of adventitious roots (AR) on the hypocotyl. How light signaling controls adventitious rooting is less well understood. Hereto, we analyzed adventitious rooting under different light conditions in wild type and photomorphogenesis mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana. Etiolation was not essential for AR formation but raised the competence to form AR under white and blue light. The blue light receptors CRY1 and PHOT1/PHOT2 are key elements contributing to the induction of AR formation in response to light. Furthermore, etiolation-controlled competence for AR formation depended on the COP9 signalosome, E3 ubiquitin ligase CONSTITUTIVELY PHOTOMORPHOGENIC (COP1), the COP1 interacting SUPPRESSOR OF PHYA-105 (SPA) kinase family members (SPA1,2 and 3) and Phytochrome-Interacting Factors (PIF). In contrast, ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL5 (HY5), suppressed AR formation. These findings provide a genetic framework that explains the high and low AR competence of Arabidopsis thaliana hypocotyls that were treated with dark, and light, respectively. We propose that light-induced auxin signal dissipation generates a transient auxin maximum that explains AR induction by a dark to light switch.

The H3 histone chaperone NASPSIM3 escorts CenH3 in Arabidopsis.

Centromeres define the chromosomal position where kinetochores form to link the chromosome to microtubules during mitosis and meiosis. Centromere identity is determined by incorporation of a specific histone H3 variant termed CenH3. As for other histones, escort and deposition of CenH3 must be ensured by histone chaperones, which handle the non-nucleosomal CenH3 pool and replenish CenH3 chromatin in dividing cells. Here, we show that the Arabidopsis orthologue of the mammalian NUCLEAR AUTOANTIGENIC SPERM PROTEIN (NASP) and Schizosaccharomyces pombe histone chaperone Sim3 is a soluble nuclear protein that binds the histone variant CenH3 and affects its abundance at the centromeres. NASPSIM3 is co-expressed with Arabidopsis CenH3 in dividing cells and binds directly to both the N-terminal tail and the histone fold domain of non-nucleosomal CenH3. Reduced NASPSIM3 expression negatively affects CenH3 deposition, identifying NASPSIM3 as a CenH3 histone chaperone.

Compact shoot architecture of Osteospermum fruticosum transformed with Rhizobium rhizogenes.

KEY MESSAGE: Improved compact shoot architecture of Osteospermum fruticosum Ri lines obtained through Rhizobium rhizogenes transformation reduces the need for chemical growth retardants. Compactness is for many ornamental crops an important commercial trait that is usually obtained through the application of growth retardants. Here, we have adopted a genetic strategy to introduce compactness in the perennial shrub Cape daisy (Osteospermum fruticosum Norl.). To this end, O. fruticosum was transformed using six different wild type Rhizobium rhizogenes strains. The most effective R. rhizogenes strains Arqua1 and ATCC15834 were used to create hairy root cultures from six Cape daisy genotypes. These root cultures were regenerated to produce transgenic Ri lines, which were analyzed for compactness. Ri lines displayed the characteristic Ri phenotype, i.e., reduced plant height, increased branching, shortened internodes, shortened peduncles, and smaller flowers. Evaluation of the Ri lines under commercial production conditions showed that similar compactness was obtained as the original Cape daisy genotypes treated with growth retardant. The results suggest that the use of chemical growth retardants may be omitted or reduced in commercial production systems of Cape daisy through implementation of Ri lines in future breeding programs.

Polyploidy Affects Plant Growth and Alters Cell Wall Composition.

Polyploidization has played a key role in plant breeding and crop improvement. Although its potential to increase biomass yield is well described, the effect of polyploidization on biomass composition has largely remained unexplored. Here, we generated a series of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants with different somatic ploidy levels (2n, 4n, 6n, and 8n) and performed rigorous phenotypic characterization. Kinematic analysis showed that polyploids developed slower compared to diploids; however, tetra- and hexaploids, but not octaploids, generated larger rosettes due to delayed flowering. In addition, morphometric analysis of leaves showed that polyploidy affected epidermal pavement cells, with increased cell size and reduced cell number per leaf blade with incrementing ploidy. However, the inflorescence stem dry weight was highest in tetraploids. Cell wall characterization revealed that the basic somatic ploidy level negatively correlated with lignin and cellulose content, and positively correlated with matrix polysaccharide content (i.e. hemicellulose and pectin) in the stem tissue. In addition, higher ploidy plants displayed altered sugar composition. Such effects were linked to the delayed development of polyploids. Moreover, the changes in polyploid cell wall composition promoted saccharification yield. The results of this study indicate that induction of polyploidy is a promising breeding strategy to further tailor crops for biomass production.

Conservation of centromeric histone 3 interaction partners in plants.

The loading and maintenance of centromeric histone 3 (CENH3) at the centromere are critical processes ensuring appropriate kinetochore establishment and equivalent segregation of the homologous chromosomes during cell division. CENH3 loss of function is lethal, whereas mutations in the histone fold domain are tolerated and lead to chromosome instability and chromosome elimination in embryos derived from crosses with wild-type pollen. A wide range of proteins in yeast and animals have been reported to interact with CENH3. The histone fold domain-interacting proteins are potentially alternative targets for the engineering of haploid inducer lines, which may be important when CENH3 mutations are not well supported by a given crop. Here, we provide an overview of the corresponding plant orthologs or functional homologs of CENH3-interacting proteins. We also list putative CENH3 post-translational modifications that are also candidate targets for modulating chromosome stability and inheritance.

Rhizogenic agrobacteria as an innovative tool for plant breeding: current achievements and limitations.

Compact plant growth is an economically important trait for many crops. In practice, compactness is frequently obtained by applying chemical plant growth regulators. In view of sustainable and environmental-friendly plant production, the search for viable alternatives is a priority for breeders. Co-cultivation and natural transformation using rhizogenic agrobacteria result in morphological alterations which together compose the Ri phenotype. This phenotype is known to exhibit a more compact plant habit, besides other features. In this review, we highlight the use of rhizogenic agrobacteria and the Ri phenotype with regard to sustainable plant production and plant breeding. An overview of described Ri lines and current breeding applications is presented. The potential of Ri lines as pre-breeding material is discussed from both a practical and legal point of view.

Cold Influences Male Reproductive Development in Plants: A Hazard to Fertility, but a Window for Evolution.

Being sessile organisms, plants suffer from various abiotic stresses including low temperature. In particular, male reproductive development of plants is extremely sensitive to cold which may dramatically reduce viable pollen shed and plant fertility. Cold stress disrupts stamen development and prominently interferes with the tapetum, with the stress-responsive hormones ABA and gibberellic acid being greatly involved. In particular, low temperature stress delays and/or inhibits programmed cell death of the tapetal cells which consequently damages pollen development and causes male sterility. On the other hand, studies in Arabidopsis and crops have revealed that ectopically decreased temperature has an impact on recombination and cytokinesis during meiotic cell division, implying a putative role for temperature in manipulating plant genomic diversity and architecture during the evolution of plants. Here, we review the current understanding of the physiological impact of cold stress on the main male reproductive development processes including tapetum development, male meiosis and gametogenesis. Moreover, we provide insights into the genetic factors and signaling pathways that are involved, with putative mechanisms being discussed.

PROTEIN PHOSHATASE 2A B'α and ß Maintain Centromeric Sister Chromatid Cohesion during Meiosis in Arabidopsis.

The correct separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis I, and sister chromatids during meiosis II, relies on the tight control of the cohesion complex. The phosphorylation and subsequent cleavage of the meiotic recombination protein REC8 (REC8-like family protein [SYN1] in Arabidopsis [Arabidopsis thaliana]), the α-kleisin subunit of the cohesion ring, along the chromosome arms at meiosis I allows crossovers and separation of homologous chromosomes without chromatid dissociation. REC8 continues to localize and function at the centromeres up to metaphase II and, in yeast and vertebrates, is protected from cleavage by means of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A)-mediated dephosphorylation. Here, we show that, in plants, centromeric sister chromatid cohesion until meiosis II also requires the activity of a PP2A-type phosphatase complex. The combined absence of the regulatory subunits PP2AB'α and PP2AB'ß leads to the premature loss of chromosome cohesion in meiosis I. Male meiocytes of the pp2ab'αß double mutant display premature depletion of SYN1. The PP2AA1 structural and B'α regulatory subunit localize specifically to centromeres until metaphase II, supporting a role for the PP2A complex in the SYN1-mediated maintenance of centromeric cohesion in plant meiosis.

Differential efficiency of wild type rhizogenic strains for rol gene transformation of plants.

Rhizogenic agrobacteria induce extensive root proliferation, in several economically valuable, dicotyledonous plant species, a phenomenon referred to as "hairy roots." Besides their pathogenic nature, agrobacteria have proven to be a valuable asset in biotechnology and molecular plant breeding. To assess the potential of frequently used rhizogenic strains, growth in yeast extract glucose broth and antibiotic resistance was analyzed. Growth curves were established for Arqua1, NCPPB2659, LMG150, LMG152, and ATCC15834; and regression analysis of the exponential growth phase resulted in a reliable and standardized method for preparation of a bacterial suspension for inoculation. Cell density did not correlate with the timing of hairy root emergence. The highest number of hairy roots was obtained with an inoculum of 1 × 108 CFU ml-1 for Arqua1, NCPPB2659, and LMG152. Cell density of ATCC15834 did not affect the number of hairy roots formed. The identity of the rhizogenic strains for plant transformation was verified in phylogenetic analysis using average nucleotide identity (ANI), which also provided insight in their genetic diversity within the Rhizobium taxon.

The mutation nrpb1-A325V in the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II suppresses compromised growth of Arabidopsis plants deficient in a function of the general transcription factor IIF.

The evolutionarily conserved 12-subunit RNA polymerase II (Pol II) is a central catalytic component that drives RNA synthesis during the transcription cycle that consists of transcription initiation, elongation, and termination. A diverse set of general transcription factors, including a multifunctional TFIIF, govern Pol II selectivity, kinetic properties, and transcription coupling with posttranscriptional processes. Here, we show that TFIIF of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) resembles the metazoan complex that is composed of the TFIIFα and TFIIFß polypeptides. Arabidopsis has two TFIIFß subunits, of which TFIIFß1/MAN1 is essential and TFIIFß2/MAN2 is not. In the partial loss-of-function mutant allele man1-1, the winged helix domain of Arabidopsis TFIIFß1/MAN1 was dispensable for plant viability, whereas the cellular organization of the shoot and root apical meristems were abnormal. Forward genetic screening identified an epistatic interaction between the largest Pol II subunit nrpb1-A325V variant and the man1-1 mutation. The suppression of the man1-1 mutant developmental defects by a mutation in Pol II suggests a link between TFIIF functions in Arabidopsis transcription cycle and the maintenance of cellular organization in the shoot and root apical meristems.

Analysis of a novel mutant allele of GSL8 reveals its key roles in cytokinesis and symplastic trafficking in Arabidopsis.

BACKGROUND: Plant cell walls are mainly composed of polysaccharides such as cellulose and callose. Callose exists at a very low level in the cell wall; however, it plays critical roles at different stages of plant development as well as in defence against unfavorable conditions. Callose is accumulated at the cell plate, at plasmodesmata and in male and female gametophytes. Despite the important roles of callose in plants, the mechanisms of its synthesis and regulatory properties are not well understood. RESULTS: CALLOSE SYNTHASE (CALS) genes, also known as GLUCAN SYNTHASE-LIKE (GSL), comprise a family of 12 members in Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, we describe a new allele of GSL8 (named essp8) that exhibits pleiotropic seedling defects. Reduction of callose deposition at the cell plates and plasmodesmata in essp8 leads to ectopic endomitosis and an increase in the size exclusion limit of plasmodesmata during early seedling development. Movement of two non-cell-autonomous factors, SHORT ROOT and microRNA165/6, both required for root radial patterning during embryonic root development, are dysregulated in the primary root of essp8. This observation provides evidence for a molecular mechanism explaining the gsl8 root phenotype. We demonstrated that GSL8 interacts with PLASMODESMATA-LOCALIZED PROTEIN 5, a ß-1,3-glucanase, and GSL10. We propose that they all might be part of a putative callose synthase complex, allowing a concerted regulation of callose deposition at plasmodesmata. CONCLUSION: Analysis of a novel mutant allele of GSL8 reveals that GSL8 is a key player in early seedling development in Arabidopsis. GSL8 is required for maintaining the basic ploidy level and regulating the symplastic trafficking. Callose deposition at plasmodesmata is highly regulated and occurs through interaction of different components, likely to be incorporated into a callose biosynthesis complex. We are providing new evidence supporting an earlier hypothesis that GSL8 might have regulatory roles apart from its enzymatic function in plasmodesmata regulation.