Broadly protective semi-synthetic glycoconjugate vaccine against pathogens capable of producing poly-ß-(1→6)-N-acetyl-d-glucosamine exopolysaccharide.

Poly-ß-(1→6)-N-acetylglucosamine (PNAG) was first discovered as a major component of biofilms formed by Staphylococcus aureus and some other staphylococci but later this exopolysaccharide was also found to be produced by pathogens of various nature. This common antigen is considered as a promising target for construction of a broadly protective vaccine. Extensive studies of PNAG, its de-N-acetylated derivative (dPNAG, containing around 15% of residual N-acetates) and their conjugates with Tetanus Toxoid (TT) revealed the crucial role of de-N-acetylated glucosamine units for the induction of protective immunity. Conjugates of synthetic penta- (5GlcNH2) and nona-ß-(1→6)-d-glucosamines (9GlcNH2) were tested in vitro and in different animal models and proved to be effective in passive and active protection against different microbial pathogens. Presently conjugate 5GlcNH2-TT is being produced under GMP conditions and undergoes safety and effectiveness evaluation in humans and economically important animals. Current review summarizes all stages of this long-termed study.

Tandem Electrospray Mass Spectrometry of Cyclic N-Substituted Oligo-ß-(1→6)-D-glucosamines.

High-resolution electrospray mass spectra (MS and MS/MS CID) of positive ions of a series of protonated, ammoniated, and metallated molecules of cyclic N-substituted oligo-ß-(1→6)-D-glucosamines differing in cycle size and N-acyl substituents were registered and interpreted. It was shown that the main type of fragmentation is a cleavage of glycosidic bonds of a cycle, and in some cases fragmentation of amide side chains is possible. If labile fragments in substituents (e.g., carbohydrate chains) are present, a decay of the cycle and an elimination of labile fragments are of comparable possibility. It was found that in some cases rearrangements with loss of an internal carbohydrate residue (IRL), or an internal part of a side chain, are feasible.

Antibody to a conserved antigenic target is protective against diverse prokaryotic and eukaryotic pathogens.

Microbial capsular antigens are effective vaccines but are chemically and immunologically diverse, resulting in a major barrier to their use against multiple pathogens. A ß-(1→6)-linked poly-N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (PNAG) surface capsule is synthesized by four proteins encoded in genetic loci designated intercellular adhesion in Staphylococcus aureus or polyglucosamine in selected Gram-negative bacterial pathogens. We report that many microbial pathogens lacking an identifiable intercellular adhesion or polyglucosamine locus produce PNAG, including Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and fungal pathogens, as well as protozoa, e.g., Trichomonas vaginalis, Plasmodium berghei, and sporozoites and blood-stage forms of Plasmodium falciparum. Natural antibody to PNAG is common in humans and animals and binds primarily to the highly acetylated glycoform of PNAG but is not protective against infection due to lack of deposition of complement opsonins. Polyclonal animal antibody raised to deacetylated glycoforms of PNAG and a fully human IgG1 monoclonal antibody that both bind to native and deacetylated glycoforms of PNAG mediated complement-dependent opsonic or bactericidal killing and protected mice against local and/or systemic infections by Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Listeria monocytogenes, Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B, Candida albicans, and P. berghei ANKA, and against colonic pathology in a model of infectious colitis. PNAG is also a capsular polysaccharide for Neisseria gonorrhoeae and nontypable Hemophilus influenzae, and protects cells from environmental stress. Vaccination targeting PNAG could contribute to immunity against serious and diverse prokaryotic and eukaryotic pathogens, and the conserved production of PNAG suggests that it is a critical factor in microbial biology.

Trimodal Control of Ion-Transport Activity on Cyclo-oligo-(1→6)-ß-D-glucosamine-Based Artificial Ion-Transport Systems.

Cyclo-oligo-(1→6)-ß-D-glucosamines functionalized with hydrophobic tails are reported as a new class of transmembrane ion-transport system. These macrocycles with hydrophilic cavities were introduced as an alternative to cyclodextrins, which are supramolecular systems with hydrophobic cavities. The transport activities of these glycoconjugates were manipulated by altering the oligomericity of the macrocycles, as well as the length and number of attached tails. Hydrophobic tails of 3 different sizes were synthesized and coupled with each glucosamine scaffold through the amide linkage to obtain 18 derivatives. The ion-transport activity increased from di- to tetrameric glucosamine macrocycles, but decreased further when flexible pentameric glucosamine was introduced. The ion-transport activity also increased with increasing length of attached linkers. For a fixed length of linkers, the transport activity decreased when the number of such tails was reduced. All glycoconjugates displayed a uniform anion-selectivity sequence: Cl(-) >Br(-) >I(-) . From theoretical studies, hydrogen bonding between the macrocycle backbone and the anion bridged through water molecules was observed.

Synthesis of multivalent carbohydrate-centered glycoclusters as nanomolar ligands of the bacterial lectin LecA from Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

A family of fifteen glycoclusters based on a cyclic oligo-(1→6)-ß-D-glucosamine core has been designed as potential inhibitors of the bacterial lectin LecA with various valencies (from 2 to 4) and linkers. Evaluation of their binding properties towards LecA has been performed by a combination of hemagglutination inhibition assays (HIA), enzyme-linked lectin assays (ELLA), and isothermal titration microcalorimetry (ITC). Divalent ligands displayed dissociation constants in the sub-micromolar range and tetravalent ligands displayed low nanomolar affinities for this lectin. The influence of the linker could also be demonstrated; aromatic moieties are the best scaffolds for binding to the lectin. The affinities observed in vitro were then correlated with molecular models to rationalize the possible binding modes of these glycoclusters with the bacterial lectin.

Synthesis of a cyclic tetramer of 3-amino-3-deoxyallose with axially oriented amino groups.

A linear tetramer of ß-(1 â†’ 6)-linked 3-azido-3-deoxy-d-allose containing glycosyl donor and glycosyl acceptor functions in the terminal monosaccharide units was prepared starting from 3-azido-3-deoxy-1,2:5,6-di-O-isopropylidene-α-d-allofuranose. Cyclization of the linear tetramer under glycosylation conditions afforded the corresponding cyclic tetrasaccharide in 77% yield; its deprotection and reduction of the azido groups resulted in the formation of the cyclic tetramer of 3-amino-3-deoxy-d-allose with axial amino groups, a potential scaffold for the synthesis of tetravalent functional clusters.

Synthetic {beta}-(1->6)-linked N-acetylated and nonacetylated oligoglucosamines used to produce conjugate vaccines for bacterial pathogens.

Vaccines for pathogens usually target strain-specific surface antigens or toxins, and rarely is there broad antigenic specificity extending across multiple species. Protective antibodies for bacteria are usually specific for surface or capsular antigens. beta-(1-->6)-Poly-N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (PNAG) is a surface polysaccharide produced by many pathogens, including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Yersinia pestis, Bordetella pertussis, Acinetobacter baumannii, and others. Protective antibodies to PNAG are elicited when a deacetylated glycoform (deacetylated PNAG [dPNAG]; <30% acetate) is used in conjugate vaccines, whereas highly acetylated PNAG does not induce such antibodies. Chemical derivation of dPNAG from native PNAG is imprecise, so we synthesized both beta-(1-->6)-d-glucosamine (GlcNH(2)) and beta-(1-->6)-d-N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) oligosaccharides with linkers on the reducing termini that could be activated to produce sulfhydryl groups for conjugation to bromoacetyl groups introduced onto carrier proteins. Synthetic 5-mer GlcNH(2) (5GlcNH(2)) or 9GlcNH(2) conjugated to tetanus toxoid (TT) elicited mouse antibodies that mediated opsonic killing of multiple S. aureus strains, while the antibodies that were produced in response to 5GlcNAc- or 9GlcNAc-TT did not mediate opsonic killing. Rabbit antibodies to 9GlcNH(2)-TT bound to PNAG and dPNAG antigens, mediated killing of S. aureus and E. coli, and protected against S. aureus skin abscesses and lethal E. coli peritonitis. Chemical synthesis of a series of oligoglucosamine ligands with defined differences in N acetylation allowed us to identify a conjugate vaccine formulation that generated protective immune responses to two of the most challenging bacterial pathogens. This vaccine could potentially be used to engender protective immunity to the broad range of pathogens that produce surface PNAG.

Synthesis of beta-(1-->6)-linked glucosamine oligosaccharides corresponding to fragments of the bacterial surface polysaccharide poly-N-acetylglucosamine.

A series of 3-beta-acetamidopropyl oligo-beta-(1-->6)-glucosamines consisting of 5, 7, 9 and 11 glucosamine residues, and a series of corresponding per-N-acetylated derivatives were synthesized using a convergent blockwise approach. These compounds represent fragments of a bacterial surface polysaccharide produced by numerous bacterial pathogens, including Staphylococcus aureus, and will be used as models for its biochemical and immunological properties.

Neoglycoconjugate of Tetrasaccharide Representing One Repeating Unit of the Streptococcus pneumoniae Type 14 Capsular Polysaccharide Induces the Production of Opsonizing IgG1 Antibodies and Possesses the Highest Protective Activity As Compared to Hexa- and Octasaccharide Conjugates.

Identifying protective synthetic oligosaccharide (OS) epitopes of Streptococcus pneumoniae capsular polysaccharides (CPs) is an indispensable step in the development of third-generation carbohydrate pneumococcal vaccines. Synthetic tetra-, hexa-, and octasaccharide structurally related to CP of S. pneumoniae type 14 were coupled to bovine serum albumin (BSA), adjuvanted with aluminum hydroxide, and tested for their immunogenicity in mice upon intraperitoneal prime-boost immunizations. Injections of the conjugates induced production of opsonizing anti-OS IgG1 antibodies (Abs). Immunization with the tetra- and octasaccharide conjugates stimulated the highest titers of the specific Abs. Further, the tetrasaccharide ligand demonstrated the highest ability to bind OS and CP Abs. Murine immune sera developed against tetra- and octasaccharide conjugates promoted pathogen opsonization to a higher degree than antisera against conjugated hexasaccharide. For the first time, the protective activities of these glycoconjugates were demonstrated in mouse model of generalized pneumococcal infections. The tetrasaccharide conjugate possessed the highest protective activities. Conversely, the octasaccharide conjugate had lower protective activities and the lowest one showed the hexasaccharide conjugate. Sera against all of the glycoconjugates passively protected naive mice from pneumococcal infections. Given that the BSA-tetrasaccharide induced the most abundant yield of specific Abs and the best protective activity, this OS may be regarded as the most promising candidate for the development of conjugated vaccines against S. pneumoniae type 14 infections.

The Effect of a BSA Conjugate of a Synthetic Hexasaccharide Related to the Fragment of Capsular Polysaccharide of Streptococcus pneumoniae Type 14 on the Activation of Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses.

We report the effect of a bovine serum albumin (BSA) conjugate of a synthetic hexasaccharide (HS) related to the fragment of the capsular polysaccharide (PS) of Streptococcus pneumoniae type 14 on the stimulation of innate immune system and the subsequent development of a PS-specific antibody response. Glycoconjugate (GC) in the presence (GC + AL) or absence of aluminum hydroxide was administered to mice twice. GC increased the number of TLR2-expressing cells and induced the maturation of dendritic cells (CD11c(+), CD80(+) and, MHCII(+)), which secreted IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNFα into the culture medium. The level of IL-1ß, IL-10, IFNγ, and TNFα in the blood increased within 24 h after the single GC administration to mice. On day 7, the numbers of splenic CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes increased. After the second immunization, the levels of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes were lower than in the control, whereas the B cell, NK cell, and MHC class II-expressing cell numbers remained enhanced. However, of the presence of anti-PS, IgG antibodies were not detected. The addition of aluminum hydroxide to GC stimulated the production of GM-CSF, IL-1ß, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, IFNγ, and TNFα. Anti-PS IgG1 antibody titers 7 days after the second immunization were high. During that period, normal levels of splenic CD4(+) T lymphocytes were maintained, whereas reduced CD8(+) T lymphocyte numbers and increased levels of B lymphocytes, NK cells, and MHC class II-expressing cell numbers were observed. Anti-PS IgG levels diminished until day 92. A booster immunization with GC + AL stimulated the production of anti-PS IgG memory antibodies, which were determined within 97 days. The elucidation of specific features of the effect of the synthetic HS conjugate on the stimulation of innate, cell-mediated immunity, and antibody response can favor the optimization of GC vaccine design.

High-resolution electrospray mass spectra of hexaethylene glycol connected biotinylated HNK-1 antigenic trisaccharide molecular probe and its non-sulfated analogue.

High-resolution electrospray mass spectra in positive and negative ion modes (MS and MS/MS) were measured and described for biotinylated hexaethylene glycol (HEG) connected molecular probes bearing HNK-1 (abbreviation of human natural killer cell-1 epitope) antigenic trisaccharide (1) and its non-sulfated analogue (2). For molecular probe 2, in its CID MS/MS of [M+2Na](2+), unexpected peak at m/z 530.2475 [C22H41N3O8SNa](+) was observed and attributed to the fragmentation of the aglycone at the end of the HEG chain distant from the biotin fragment. No homologous ions having the difference C2H4O smaller than that one were observed. The same cleavage was revealed in negative ion spectra. A similar fragmentation was found for other non-sulfated, biotinylated HEG-spacered molecular probes thus demonstrates this type of fragmentation characteristic for such glycosides.

Cyclo-oligo-(1 → 6)-ß-D-glucosamine based artificial channels for tunable transmembrane ion transport.

Unimolecular ion channels were designed by functionalization of a new type of cyclic oligosaccharides, cyclo-oligo-(1 → 6)-ß-d-glucosamines, with pentabutylene glycol chains. Their ion transporting activity was tuned by varying oligomericity. A halide selectivity sequence, Cl(-) > Br(-) > I(-) was observed.

A Poly-N-acetylglucosamine-Shiga toxin broad-spectrum conjugate vaccine for Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli.

Many pathogens produce the ß-(1-6)-linked poly-N-acetylglucosamine (PNAG) surface polysaccharide that is being developed as a broadly protective antimicrobial vaccine. However, it is unknown whether systemically injected PNAG vaccines or antibodies would provide protective immunity against pathogens confined to the gastrointestinal tract such as Shiga toxin (Stx)-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), an important group of gastrointestinal (GI) pathogens for which effective immunotherapeutics are lacking. To ascertain whether systemic IgG antibody to PNAG impacts this infectious situation, a vaccine consisting of a synthetic nonamer of nonacetylated PNAG, 9GlcNH2, conjugated to the Shiga toxin 1b subunit (9GlcNH2-Stx1b) was produced. Rabbit antibodies raised to the conjugate vaccine were tested for bacterial killing and toxin neutralization in vitro and protection against infection in infant mice. Cell surface PNAG was detected on all 9 STEC isolates tested, representing 6 STEC serogroups, including E. coli O157:H7. Antibody to the 9GlcNH2-Stx1b conjugate neutralized Stx1 potently and Stx2 modestly. For O157:H7 and O104:H4 STEC strains, antibodies elicited by the 9GlcNH2-Stx1b conjugate possessed opsonic killing and bactericidal activity. Following intraperitoneal injection, antibodies to both PNAG and Stx were needed for infant mouse protection against O157 STEC. These antibodies also mediated protection against the Stx2-producing O104:H4 strain that was the cause of a recent outbreak in Germany, although sufficient doses of antibody to PNAG alone were protective against this strain in infant mice. Our observations suggest that vaccination against both PNAG and Stx, using a construct such as the 9GlcNH2-Stx1b conjugate vaccine, would be protective against a broad range of STEC serogroups. IMPORTANCE The presence of poly-N-acetylglucosamine (PNAG) on many pathogens presents an opportunity to target this one structure with a multispecies vaccine. Whether antibodies to PNAG can protect against pathogens confined to the gastrointestinal tract is not known. As Shiga toxin (Stx)-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) bacteria are serious causes of infection whose virulence is dependent on elaboration of Stx, we prepared a vaccine containing a synthetic nonamer of PNAG (9GlcNH2) conjugated to Shiga toxin 1b subunit (9GlcNH2-Stx1b) to evaluate bacterial killing, toxin neutralization, and protective efficacy in infant mice. All nine (100%) clinical strains of STEC from different serogroups expressed PNAG. Vaccine-induced antibody mediated in vitro killing of STEC and neutralization of both Stx1 and Stx2. Passive administration of antibody to the conjugate showed protection requiring immunity to both PNAG and Stx for O157 strains, although for an O104 strain, antibody to PNAG alone was protective. Immunity to PNAG may contribute to protection against STEC infections.

Stereochemistry of intramolecular cyclization of tetra-ß-(1→6)-D-glucosamines and related tetrasaccharides: the role of the conformational stereocontrol and the neighboring group participation.

The effect of reaction conditions, the nature of a leaving group, and a substituent at C-2 in the glycosylating monosaccharide on the stereochemical outcome of cyclization of linear tetra-ß-(1→6)-d-glucosamines and some 'mixed' tetrasaccharides comprising glucose and glucosamine residues has been examined. Toluene and nitrile solvents improved the ß-stereoselectivity of cyclization, however, the overall efficiency of the formation of cyclic products in these solvents was lower than that in dichloromethane. The use of bromide or pentenyl glycoside as leaving groups instead of the thioglycoside did not increase the ß-stereoselectivity. Replacement of the N-phthaloyl group in the glycosylating unit by N-Troc one did not affect the stereoselectivity of cyclization, while the tetrasaccharides, which contained 2-O-benzoyl glucose instead of glucosamine as the glycosyl donor moiety, were found to provide ß-linked cyclic products exclusively. Using this finding, two cyclic tetrasaccharides with alternate or adjacent arrangement of two glucose and two glucosamine units have been efficiently synthesized. These cycles were intended for the preparation of divalent glycoclusters with different ligand orientation. The difference in the stereoselectivity of cyclization of glucose and glucosamine precursors was accounted for by more effective anchimeric participation of the O-benzoyl group as compared to N-Phth and N-Troc counterparts that was confirmed by calculations of the stabilization energy and rotational barriers around C2-O/N bond in the corresponding glycosyl cations. Only the 2-O-benzoylated glycosyl cation proved to be able to form a stabilized dioxalenium intermediate, which provides stereospecific ß-glycosylation.

Opsonic and protective properties of antibodies raised to conjugate vaccines targeting six Staphylococcus aureus antigens.

Staphylococcus aureus is a major cause of nosocomial and community-acquired infections for which a vaccine is greatly desired. Antigens found on the S. aureus outer surface include the capsular polysaccharides (CP) of serotype 5 (CP5) or 8 (CP8) and/or a second antigen, a ß-(1→6)-polymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (PNAG). Antibodies specific for either CP or PNAG antigens have excellent in vitro opsonic killing activity (OPKA), but when mixed together have potent interference in OPKA and murine protection. To ascertain if this interference could be abrogated by using a synthetic non-acetylated oligosaccharide fragment of PNAG, 9GlcNH(2), in place of chemically partially deacetylated PNAG, three conjugate vaccines consisting of 9GlcNH(2) conjugated to a non-toxic mutant of alpha-hemolysin (Hla H35L), CP5 conjugated to clumping factor B (ClfB), or CP8 conjugated to iron-surface determinant B (IsdB) were used separately to immunize rabbits. Opsonic antibodies mediating killing of multiple S. aureus strains were elicited for all three vaccines and showed carbohydrate antigen-specific reductions in the tissue bacterial burdens in animal models of S. aureus skin abscesses, pneumonia, and nasal colonization. Carrier-protein specific immunity was also shown to be effective in reducing bacterial levels in infected lungs and in nasal colonization. However, use of synthetic 9GlcNH(2) to induce antibody to PNAG did not overcome the interference in OPKA engendered when these were combined with antibody to either CP5 or CP8. Whereas each individual vaccine showed efficacy, combining antisera to CP antigens and PNAG still abrogated individual OPKA activities, indicating difficulty in achieving a multi-valent vaccine targeting both the CP and PNAG antigens.

Synthesis of five nona-ß-(1→6)-d-glucosamines with various patterns of N-acetylation corresponding to the fragments of exopolysaccharide of Staphylococcus aureus.

A series of five 3-acetamidopropyl ß-glycosides of nona-ß-(1→6)-glucosamines containing two N-acetylglucosamine residues separated by a different number of glucosamine units with free amino groups have been synthesized using a convergent blockwise approach. Oxazoline glycosylation was used to introduce N-acetylglucosamine residues. These nonasaccharides are structurally related to the poly-N-acetylglucosamine (PNAG) extracellular polysaccharide of Staphylococcus aureus and can be used as models for biochemical and immunological studies.

NMR and conformational studies of linear and cyclic oligo-(1→6)-ß-D-glucosamines.

The conformational behavior of a series of linear and cyclic oligo-(1→6)-ß-D-glucosamines and their N-acetylated derivatives, which are related to fragments of natural poly-N-acetylglucosamine, was studied by theoretical molecular modeling and experimental determination of transglycosidic vicinal coupling constants (3)J(C,H) and (3)J(H,H). Molecular dynamics simulations were performed under several types of conditions varying in the consideration of ionization of amino groups, solvent effect, and temperature. Neural network clustering and asphericity calculations were performed on the basis of molecular dynamics data. It was shown that disaccharide fragments in the studied linear oligosaccharides were not rigid, and tended to have several conformers, thus determining the overall twisted shape with helical elements. In addition, it was found that the behavior of C5-C6 bond depended significantly upon the simulation conditions. The cyclic di-, tri-, and tetrasaccharides mostly had symmetrical ring-shaped conformations. The larger cycles tended to adopt more complicated shapes, and the conformational behavior of their disaccharide fragments was close to that in the linear oligosaccharides.