Cognitive, psychosocial, and behaviour gains at age 31 years from the Jamaica early childhood stimulation trial.

BACKGROUND: There is little evidence on adult benefits from early childhood interventions in low and middle-income countries. We assessed adult cognition, psychosocial skills and behaviour from a stimulation trial conducted in Jamaica. METHODS: Children with stunted growth (height-for age <-2SD of references) aged 9-24 months were enrolled in a two-year randomised-controlled trial of nutritional supplementation and/or stimulation. At mean age 31.79 (SD 0.40) years, 95 of 127 participants (74.8%; 53.7% male) were assessed. Children without stunted growth were also followed as a comparison group (64 of 84 participants, 76.2%). Measurements included IQ, executive function, mental health, psychosocial skills, personality traits and risk behaviours. A block permutation test, valid for small sample sizes, was used. Analyses accounted for the randomisation protocol, multiple hypothesis testing and attrition. RESULTS: Treatment group participants (stimulation intervention with or without supplementation, n = 48) had significantly greater IQ (Hedges g effect size 0. 57; 95%CI 0.20, 0.95) and cognitive flexibility (0.61; 0.25, 0.98) compared with no-treatment (no-intervention and supplementation only, n = 47). They also had reduced depressive symptoms (0.61; 0.28, 1.00), increased grit (0.53; 0.16, 0.92) and conscientiousness (0.66; 0.31, 1.07), lower substance use (rank mean score, 0.45; 0.08, 0.81) and risk taking related to health and work (0.64; 0.27, 1.00). There were 18 significant outcomes of 33 assessed. Comparison participants had higher IQ than no-treatment (1.17; 0.81, 1.54) and treatment groups (0.62; 0.18, 1.07); and better executive function, lower social inhibition and risk taking than the no-treatment group. CONCLUSIONS: The wide-ranging benefits at 31 years from the stimulation intervention supports investment in larger scale programmes to promote early childhood development in disadvantaged children. The lower IQ in the treatment group compared with comparison participants, emphasises the need for continued efforts to prevent early childhood growth retardation.

Early childhood stunting is associated with lower developmental levels in the subsequent generation of children.

BACKGROUND: Linear growth retardation (stunting) is associated with lower adult cognition, educational attainment, and income. These effects, together with possible effects of stunting on birth weight and subsequent growth of offspring, suggest that stunting could be associated with poor development in the next generation of children. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to compare developmental levels in children born to parents who were stunted or nonstunted in early childhood. METHODS: This is a prospective cohort study of the children of participants in the Jamaica supplementation and stimulation study. The analysis compared children born to a parent who was stunted at age 9-24 mo, and did not receive the stimulation intervention, with children born to a parent in the nonstunted group. Developmental levels were measured with the Griffiths mental development scales between ages 12 and 72 mo. Mixed model regression analyses were conducted to allow for clustering of children within families and child (repeat assessments). The analyses included 89 children with a total of 156 assessments. Caregiver and home characteristics associated with the developmental quotient (DQ) or any of the subscales were included in the regressions. RESULTS: Children born to a stunted parent had lower DQs (-5.29 points; 95% CI: -9.06, -1.52 points; P = 0.01) and lower scores on the cognitive subscale (-5.77 points; 95% CI: -10.68, -0.87 points; P = 0.022). The offspring of stunted parents had lower height-for-age (-0.61 z scores; 95% CI: -1.13, -0.10 z scores; P = 0.021). In analyses, adjusting for child height-for-age or birth weight, the developmental differences remained significant. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first report comparing the development of offspring of persons stunted in early childhood to the development of offspring of nonstunted parents. The findings suggest that the impact of stunting on development continues in the next generation of children. If replicated, these findings have important implications for estimation of the cost of stunting to social and economic development.

Psychosocial stimulation benefits development in nonanemic children but not in anemic, iron-deficient children.

Young children with iron deficiency anemia (IDA) usually have poor development, but there is limited information on their response to psychosocial intervention. We aimed to compare the effects of psychosocial stimulation on the development of children with IDA and children who were neither anemic nor iron deficient (NANI). NANI (n = 209) and IDA (n = 225) children, aged 6-24 mo, from 30 Bangladeshi villages were enrolled in the study. The villages were then randomized to stimulation or control, and all children with IDA received 30 mg iron daily for 6 mo. Stimulation comprised 9 mo weekly play sessions at home. We assessed children's development at baseline and after 9 mo by using the Psychomotor Development Index (PDI) and the Mental Development Index (MDI) of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-II, and rated their behavior during the test. When we controlled for socioeconomic background, the IDA and NANI groups did not differ in their Bayley scores and behavior at baseline. After 9 mo, the IDA group had improved in iron status compared with baseline but had lower PDI scores and were less responsive to the examiner than the NANI group. Random-effects multilevel regressions of the final Bayley scores of the IDA and NANI groups showed that stimulation improved children's MDI [B ± SE = 5.7 ± 1.9 (95% CI: 2.0, 9.4), P = 0.003], and the interaction between iron status and stimulation showed a suggestive trend (P = 0.10), indicating that children with IDA and NANI responded differently to stimulation, with the NANI group improving more than the IDA group. In addition to iron treatment, children with IDA may require more intense or longer interventions than NANI children.

The effect of psychosocial stimulation on cognition and behaviour at 6 years in a cohort of term, low-birthweight Jamaican children.

AIM: The aim of this study was to determine whether psychosocial stimulation up to the age of 2 years benefits cognition and behaviour at age 6 years in low-birthweight, term-born (LBW-T) children (gestational age > or =37 wk, birthweight <2500g), and to compare LBW-T and normal-birthweight (NBW) children. METHOD: LBW-T Jamaican infants were randomized at birth to a control group or an intervention group. Children in the intervention group received psychosocial stimulation for 2 years. LBW-T infants were also compared with NBW infants born in the same hospital. IQ, cognitive function, and behaviour were measured at age 6 years in 109 LBW-T infants. The LBW-T group were divided into the intervention group (55 out of 70 enrolled, 32 females, 23 males; mean birthweight 2190g, SD 200g; and the control group (54 out of 70 enrolled, 33 females, 21 males; birthweight 2240g, SD 180g]. These were compared with 73 out of 94 enrolled NBW infants (38 females 35 males; birthweight 3130g, SD 330g). RESULTS: Among the LBW-T children performance IQ scores were higher in the intervention group than in the control group (regression coefficient [B] 4.06, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.01-7.98) as were visual-spatial memory scores (B 1.12, 95% CI 0.45-1.87). Children in the intervention group also exhibited fewer behavioural difficulties (B -2.21, 95% CI -4.13 to -0.10) than children in the control group. Compared with NBW children, LBW-T children in the control group had poorer selective attention (B=-3.35, 95% CI -5.59 to -1.26) and visual-spatial memory (B=-0.76, 95% CI -1.54 to 0.00), but there were no differences in IQ, language, or behaviour. INTERPRETATION: Stimulation had sustained benefits in LBW-T infants. Finding few differences between LBW-T and NBW school-aged children concurs with results from other developing countries.

Use of family care indicators and their relationship with child development in Bangladesh.

Poor stimulation in the home is one of the main factors affecting the development of children living in poverty. The family care indicators (FCIs) were developed to measure home stimulation in large populations and were derived from the Home Observations for Measurement of the Environment (HOME). The FCIs were piloted with 801 rural Bangladeshi mothers of children aged 18 months. Five subscales were created: 'play activities' (PA), 'varieties of play materials' (VP), 'sources of play materials', 'household books', and 'magazines and newspapers' (MN). All subscales had acceptable short-term reliability. Mental and motor development of the children was assessed on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development and their language expression and comprehension by mothers' report. After controlling for socioeconomic variables, VP and PA independently predicted four and three of the developmental outcomes respectively, and MN predicted both the Bayley scores. The FCI is promising as a survey-based indicator of the quality of children's home environment.

Validity and reliability of mothers' reports of language development in 1-year-old children in a large-scale survey in Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: In developing countries, it is often important to have measures of development in children under 3 years of age in large-scale surveys or evaluations of nutrition and stimulation programs. However, there is a lack of suitable instruments with established validity. OBJECTIVE: To develop a language test for children aged 12 to 18 months based on mothers' report, suitable for use in large-scale surveys, and examine its concurrent and predictive validity. To determine whether the test is sensitive to home stimulation and nutritional status and compare the test with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID). METHODS: A subsample of participants in a large, prospective cohort study in rural Bangladesh (MINIMat) was selected for a study of child development (n = 2,852). A total of 2,418 participants were interviewed concerning their children's expressive and receptive vocabulary, and children were tested using the BSID. RESULTS: The language test had reasonable short- and long-term reliability between 12 and 18 months (r = 0.50) and concurrent validity with the Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) (r = 0.32 language comprehension to 0.41 language expression). Its predictive validity with IQ at age 5 years was similar to that of the Bayley MDI (r = 0.37 to 0.41 for language and r = 0.37 for MDI). Child language was independently associated with postnatal growth, stimulation in the home, gestational age, and socioeconomic status, and a similar set of variables predicted the Bayley MDI. CONCLUSIONS: The language test was reliable, had acceptable concurrent and predictive validity, and was sensitive to environmental and child characteristics. Mothers' reports of language could be useful in large-scale programs.

Effect of arsenic exposure during pregnancy on infant development at 7 months in rural Matlab, Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to arsenic-contaminated drinking water during pregnancy is associated with low birth weight and fetal loss, and there is concern that the infants' development may be affected. OBJECTIVE: We assessed the effects of in utero arsenic exposure during pregnancy on infants' problem-solving ability and motor development. METHODS: We conducted a large population-based study of nutritional supplementation with 4,436 pregnant women in Matlab, Bangladesh, an area of high-arsenic-contaminated tube wells. We measured arsenic concentration in spot urine specimens at 8 and 30 weeks of pregnancy. We assessed a subsample of 1,799 infants, born to these mothers, at 7 months of age on two problem-solving tests (PSTs), the motor scale of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-II, and behavior ratings. RESULT: Arsenic concentrations in maternal urine were high, with a median (interquartile range) of 81 microg/L (37-207 microg/L) at 8 weeks of gestation and of 84 microg/L (42-230 microg/L) at 30 weeks. Arsenic exposure was related to many poor socioeconomic conditions that also correlated with child development measures. Multiple regressions of children's motor and PST scores and behavior ratings, controlling for socioeconomic background variables, age, and sex, showed no significant effect of urinary arsenic concentration on any developmental outcome. CONCLUSION: We detected no significant effect of arsenic exposure during pregnancy on infant development. However, it is possible that other effects are as yet unmeasured or that effects will become apparent at a later age.

Undernourished children have different temperaments than better-nourished children in rural Bangladesh.

Undernutrition in early childhood is associated with poor cognitive development and some changes in behavior. However, there is little information on their temperament. Our objective in this study was to determine whether undernourished children aged 6-24 mo had different temperament traits than better-nourished children. Two hundred and twelve undernourished children (weight for age < -2 Z-scores) attending community nutrition centers in 20 villages in rural Bangladesh and 108 better-nourished children (weight-for-age > or = -2 Z-scores) matched for age, sex, and village participated in the study. Temperament was assessed through an interviewer-administered maternal questionnaire consisting of 7 subscales: manageability, activity, emotionality, sociability, attention, soothability, and fear. After adjusting for significant covariates, the undernourished children were less sociable [regression coefficient (B) = -0.96; 95% CI = -0.04, -1.88], less attentive (B = -0.94; 95% CI = -0.19, -1.69), more fearful (B = 1.43; 95% CI = 2.44, 0.42), and had more negative emotionality (B = -1.08; 95% CI = 0.006, -2.16). In conclusion, these undernourished children had comprehensive differences in temperament traits, which may increase their risk of developing behavioral and mental health problems in later childhood.

The D-score: a metric for interpreting the early development of infants and toddlers across global settings.

INTRODUCTION: Early childhood development can be described by an underlying latent construct. Global comparisons of children's development are hindered by the lack of a validated metric that is comparable across cultures and contexts, especially for children under age 3 years. We constructed and validated a new metric, the Developmental Score (D-score), using existing data from 16 longitudinal studies. METHODS: Studies had item-level developmental assessment data for children 0-48 months and longitudinal outcomes at ages >4-18 years, including measures of IQ and receptive vocabulary. Existing data from 11 low-income, middle-income and high-income countries were merged for >36 000 children. Item mapping produced 95 'equate groups' of same-skill items across 12 different assessment instruments. A statistical model was built using the Rasch model with item difficulties constrained to be equal in a subset of equate groups, linking instruments to a common scale, the D-score, a continuous metric with interval-scale properties. D-score-for-age z-scores (DAZ) were evaluated for discriminant, concurrent and predictive validity to outcomes in middle childhood to adolescence. RESULTS: Concurrent validity of DAZ with original instruments was strong (average r=0.71), with few exceptions. In approximately 70% of data rounds collected across studies, DAZ discriminated between children above/below cut-points for low birth weight (<2500 g) and stunting (-2 SD below median height-for-age). DAZ increased significantly with maternal education in 55% of data rounds. Predictive correlations of DAZ with outcomes obtained 2-16 years later were generally between 0.20 and 0.40. Correlations equalled or exceeded those obtained with original instruments despite using an average of 55% fewer items to estimate the D-score. CONCLUSION: The D-score metric enables quantitative comparisons of early childhood development across ages and sets the stage for creating simple, low-cost, global-use instruments to facilitate valid cross-national comparisons of early childhood development.

Effects of early childhood psychosocial stimulation and nutritional supplementation on cognition and education in growth-stunted Jamaican children: prospective cohort study.

Growth retardation affects about a third of children younger than age 5 years in developing countries and is associated with poor development. Previously, we did a trial of nutritional supplementation and psychosocial stimulation in stunted children aged 9-24 months. Non-stunted children were also assessed. Both types of intervention improved development. We now present the effects of early interventions on cognition and education in 103 of the 129 stunted children and compare them with 64 of the 84 non-stunted children now aged 17-18 years. We recorded no significant effects of nutritional supplementation. Compared with no intervention, stimulation resulted in higher full scale IQ scores (coefficient 0.38, 95% CI 0.06-0.71, p=0.02) and higher scores on the verbal subscale (0.37, 0.07-0.68, p=0.02), Peabody picture vocabulary test (7.84, 0.73-14.95, p=0.03), verbal analogies (0.26, 0.03-0.49, p=0.03), and reading tests (4.73, 1.31-8.14, p=0.007, and 2.7, 1.12-4.37, p=0.001). Overall, stunted non-stimulated participants had significantly poorer scores than the non-stunted group on 11 of 12 cognitive and educational tests. Stunting in early childhood is associated with cognitive and educational deficits in late adolescence, which are reduced by stimulation at a young age.

Zinc supplementation and psychosocial stimulation: effects on the development of undernourished Jamaican children.

BACKGROUND: Undernourished children have poor levels of development that benefit from stimulation. Zinc deficiency is prevalent in undernourished children and may contribute to their poor development. OBJECTIVE: We assessed the effects of zinc supplementation and psychosocial stimulation given together or separately on the psychomotor development of undernourished children. DESIGN: This was a randomized controlled trial with 4 groups: stimulation alone, zinc supplementation alone, both interventions, and control (routine care only). Subjects were 114 children aged 9-30 mo and below -1.5 z scores of the National Center for Health Statistics weight-for-age references who were recruited from 18 health clinics. Clinics were randomly assigned to receive stimulation or not; individual children were randomly assigned to receive zinc or placebo. The stimulation program comprised weekly home visits during which play was demonstrated and maternal-child interactions were encouraged. The supplementation was 10 mg Zn as sulfate daily or placebo. Development (assessed by use of the Griffiths Mental Development Scales), length, and weight were measured at baseline and 6 mo later. Weekly morbidity histories were taken. RESULTS: Significant interactions were found between zinc supplementation and stimulation. Zinc benefited the developmental quotient only in children who received stimulation, and benefits from zinc to hand and eye coordination were greater in stimulated children. Zinc supplementation alone improved hand and eye coordination, and stimulation alone benefited the developmental quotient, hearing and speech, and performance. Zinc supplementation also reduced diarrheal morbidity but did not significantly improve growth. CONCLUSION: Zinc supplementation benefits development in undernourished children, and the benefits are enhanced if stimulation is also provided.

Integrating a Parenting Intervention With Routine Primary Health Care: A Cluster Randomized Trial.

OBJECTIVE: More than 200 million children globally do not attain their developmental potential. We hypothesized that a parent training program could be integrated into primary health center visits and benefit child development. METHODS: We conducted a cluster randomized trial in the Caribbean (Jamaica, Antigua, and St Lucia). Fifteen centers were randomly assigned to the control (n = 250 mother-child pairs) and 14 to the intervention (n = 251 mother-child pairs) groups. Participants were recruited at the 6- to 8-week child health visit. The intervention used group delivery at 5 routine visits from age 3 to 18 months and comprised short films of child development messages, which were shown in the waiting area; discussion and demonstration led by community health workers; and mothers' practice of activities. Nurses distributed message cards and a few play materials. Primary outcomes were child cognition, language, and hand-eye coordination and secondary outcomes were caregiver knowledge, practices, maternal depression, and child growth, measured after the 18-month visit. RESULTS: Eight-five percent of enrolled children were tested (control = 210, intervention = 216). Loss did not differ by group. Multilevel analyses showed significant benefits for cognitive development (3.09 points; 95% confidence interval: 1.31 to 4.87 points; effect size: 0.3 SDs). There were no other child benefits. There was a significant benefit to parenting knowledge (treatment effect: 1.59; 95% confidence interval: 1.01 to 2.17; effect size: 0.4). CONCLUSIONS: An innovative parenting intervention, requiring no additional clinic staff or mothers' time, was integrated into health services, with benefits to child cognitive development and parent knowledge. This is a promising strategy that merits further evaluation at scale.

Effects of integrated child development and nutrition interventions on child development and nutritional status.

We conducted a systematic review of studies that examined the effect of interventions combining a child development component with a nutrition one; in some cases the nutrition interventions also included health-promotion components. Only papers with both child development and nutrition outcomes and rated as moderate-to-good quality were included. Eleven efficacy and two nonrandomized trials, and eight program evaluations were identified. Only six trials examined interventions separately and combined. The trials showed nutritional interventions usually benefited nutritional status and sometimes benefited child development. Stimulation consistently benefited child development. There was no significant loss of any effect when interventions were combined, but there was little evidence of synergistic interaction between nutrition and stimulation on child development. Only three trials followed up the children after intervention. All at-scale program evaluations were combined interventions. Five benefited child development, but one did not, and two showed deficits. There was generally little benefit of at-scale programs to nutritional status. We found no rigorous evaluations of adding stimulation to health and nutrition services at scale and there is an urgent need for them. There is also a need to establish quality-control mechanisms for existing scaled-up programs and to determine their long-term effects. There is also a need to determine if there are any sustained benefits for the children after programs finish.

Cognitive deficit and poverty in the first 5 years of childhood in Bangladesh.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine the timing and size of the cognitive deficit associated with poverty in the first 5 years of life and to examine the role of parental characteristics, pre- and postnatal growth, and stimulation in the home in Bangladeshi children. We hypothesized that the effect of poverty on cognition begins in infancy and is mainly mediated by these factors. METHODS: We enrolled 2853 singletons, a subsample from a pregnancy supplementation trial in a poor rural area. We assessed mental development at 7, 18, and 64 months; anthropometry at birth, 12, 24, and 64 months; home stimulation at 18 and 64 months; and family's socioeconomic background. In multiple regression analyses, we examined the effect of poverty at birth on IQ at 64 months and the extent that other factors mediated the effect. RESULTS: A mean cognitive deficit of 0.2 (95% confidence interval -0.4 to -0.02) z scores between the first and fifth wealth quintiles was apparent at 7 months and increased to 1.2 (95% confidence interval -1.3 to -1.0) z scores of IQ by 64 months. Parental education, pre- and postnatal growth in length, and home stimulation mediated 86% of the effects of poverty on IQ and had independent effects. Growth in the first 2 years had larger effects than later growth. Home stimulation had effects throughout the period. CONCLUSIONS: Effects of poverty on children's cognition are mostly mediated through parental education, birth size, growth in the first 24 months, and home stimulation in the first 5 years.

Using the infrastructure of a conditional cash transfer program to deliver a scalable integrated early child development program in Colombia: cluster randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effectiveness of an integrated early child development intervention, combining stimulation and micronutrient supplementation and delivered on a large scale in Colombia, for children's development, growth, and hemoglobin levels. DESIGN: Cluster randomized controlled trial, using a 2 × 2 factorial design, with municipalities assigned to one of four groups: psychosocial stimulation, micronutrient supplementation, combined intervention, or control. SETTING: 96 municipalities in Colombia, located across eight of its 32 departments. PARTICIPANTS: 1420 children aged 12-24 months and their primary carers. INTERVENTION: Psychosocial stimulation (weekly home visits with play demonstrations), micronutrient sprinkles given daily, and both combined. All delivered by female community leaders for 18 months. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Cognitive, receptive and expressive language, and fine and gross motor scores on the Bayley scales of infant development-III; height, weight, and hemoglobin levels measured at the baseline and end of intervention. RESULTS: Stimulation improved cognitive scores (adjusted for age, sex, testers, and baseline levels of outcomes) by 0.26 of a standard deviation (P=0.002). Stimulation also increased receptive language by 0.22 of a standard deviation (P=0.032). Micronutrient supplementation had no significant effect on any outcome and there was no interaction between the interventions. No intervention affected height, weight, or hemoglobin levels. CONCLUSIONS: Using the infrastructure of a national welfare program we implemented the integrated early child development intervention on a large scale and showed its potential for improving children's cognitive development. We found no effect of supplementation on developmental or health outcomes. Moreover, supplementation did not interact with stimulation. The implementation model for delivering stimulation suggests that it may serve as a promising blueprint for future policy on early childhood development.Trial registration Current Controlled trials ISRCTN18991160.

Early-life cadmium exposure and child development in 5-year-old girls and boys: a cohort study in rural Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: Cadmium is a commonly occurring toxic food contaminant, but health consequences of early-life exposure are poorly understood. OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the associations between cadmium exposure and neurobehavioral development in preschool children. METHODS: In our population-based mother-child cohort study in rural Bangladesh, we assessed cadmium exposure in 1,305 women in early pregnancy and their children at 5 years of age by measuring concentrations in urine (U-Cd), using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Children's IQ at 5 years of age, including Verbal (VIQ), Performance (PIQ), and Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ), were measured by Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. Behavior was assessed by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). RESULTS: In multiple linear regression models, adjusted for sex, home stimulation, socioeconomic status (SES), and maternal and child characteristics, a doubling of maternal U-Cd was inversely associated with VIQ (-0.84 points; 95% confidence interval: -1.3, -0.40), PIQ (-0.64 points; -1.1, -0.18), and FSIQ (-0.80 points; -1.2, -0.39). Concurrent child U-Cd showed somewhat weaker association with VIQ and FSIQ, but not PIQ. Stratification by sex and SES indicated slightly stronger associations with PIQ and FSIQ in girls than in boys and in higher-income compared with lower-income families. Concurrent U-Cd was inversely associated with SDQ-prosocial behavior and positively associated with SDQ-difficult behavior, but associations were close to the null after adjustment. Quantile regression analysis showed similar associations across the whole range of each developmental outcome. CONCLUSION: Early-life low-level cadmium exposure was associated with lower child intelligence scores in our study cohort. Further research in this area is warranted.

Pre- and postnatal arsenic exposure and child development at 18 months of age: a cohort study in rural Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to arsenic through drinking water has been associated with impaired cognitive function in school-aged children in cross-sectional studies; however, there are few longitudinal studies and little information on effects of exposure in early life when the brain is generally most vulnerable. METHODS: A longitudinal cohort study beginning in early pregnancy was conducted in rural Bangladesh, where arsenic concentrations in well water vary considerably. We assessed the effects of pre- and postnatal arsenic exposure on development of 2112 children at 18 months of age with Bayley Scales of Infant Development-II (mental and psychomotor development indices), Wolke's Behavior Rating Scale and maternal report of language. We related the measures of child development to arsenic concentrations in maternal urine in gestational weeks 9 and 30 and child's urinary arsenic at 18 months of age. Details of socio-economic background, home stimulation and anthropometric measurements of mothers and children were also available. RESULTS: Median maternal urinary arsenic concentration averaged over early and late gestation was 96 µg/l, whereas children's urine contained 35 µg/l of arsenic. There was no significant effect of any of the arsenic exposure measures on any of the child development measures after controlling for social and economic confounders, child's age and sex. CONCLUSION: Contrary to expectations, we found no indications of adverse effects of pre- or postnatal arsenic exposure on child development at 18 months. It remains possible that duration of exposure is critical and that effects will become apparent later in childhood.

Effects of prenatal food and micronutrient supplementation on infant development: a randomized trial from the Maternal and Infant Nutrition Interventions, Matlab (MINIMat) study.

BACKGROUND: Few data exist for the effects of multiple micronutrient (MM) or food supplementation to undernourished pregnant women on their offsprings' development. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to compare the effects on infant development of early (8-10 wk gestation) or usual ( approximately 17 wk gestation) supplementation with food and MM, 30 mg Fe + 400 microg folate, or 60 mg Fe + 400 microg folate. DESIGN: A large, randomized, controlled trial of pregnancy supplementation was conducted in Bangladesh. A subsample of infants (n = 2853) were assessed on 2 problem-solving tests (support and cover tests), the motor index of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, and Wolke's behavior ratings at 7 mo of age. RESULTS: There were no significant effects of any intervention in the group as a whole. However, infants of undernourished mothers [body mass index (BMI; in kg/m2) < 18.5] who received early food supplementation performed slightly but significantly (P = 0.035) better on the support test than did infants of mothers who received usual food supplementation (z score: 0.17; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.33). There were no benefits in infants of higher-BMI mothers (P = 0.024 for BMI x food interaction). Children of low-BMI mothers who received MMs had slightly better motor scores (z score: 0.28; 95% CI: 0.08, 0.48) and activity ratings (z score: 0.24; 95% CI: 0.037, 0.45) than did those who received 30 mg Fe + 400 microg folate, whereas other children did not benefit (P = 0.05 for both motor scores and BMI x micronutrients and for activity and BMI x micronutrients). CONCLUSIONS: Small benefits from early food and MM supplementation were found in infants of low-BMI but not of high-BMI mothers. However, the benefits were of doubtful functional importance, and longer follow-up is required to determine programmatic implications.

Early childhood stunting is associated with poor psychological functioning in late adolescence and effects are reduced by psychosocial stimulation.

Stunting is associated with deficits in cognition and school achievement from early childhood to late adolescence; however, there has been little investigation of emotional and behavioral outcomes. The objective of this study was to determine whether linear growth retardation (stunting) in early childhood is associated with poorer psychological functioning in late adolescence. The study was a prospective cohort study of stunted and nonstunted children. Participants were identified at age 9-24 mo by a survey of poor neighborhoods in Kingston, Jamaica, and a 2-y intervention trial of supplementation and stimulation was conducted in the stunted children. Psychological functioning was assessed at age 17 y in 103 of 129 stunted children enrolled and 64 of 84 nonstunted participants. Anxiety, depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and antisocial behavior were reported by participants using interviewer-administered questionnaires and attention deficit, hyperactivity, and oppositional behavior were reported by parent interviews. The stunted participants reported significantly more anxiety (regression coefficient = 3.03; 95% CI = 0.99, 5.08) and depressive symptoms (0.37; 95% CI = 0.01, 0.72) and lower self-esteem (-1.67; 95% CI = -0.38, -2.97) than nonstunted participants and were reported by their parents to be more hyperactive (1.29; 95% CI = 0.12, 2.46). Effect sizes were 0.4-0.5 SD. Participants who received stimulation in early childhood differed from the nonstunted group in hyperactivity only. Children stunted before age 2 y thus have poorer emotional and behavioral outcomes in late adolescence. The findings expand the range of disadvantages associated with early stunting, which affects 151 million children <5 y old in developing countries.