Strategies for Enhancing Plant Immunity and Resilience Using Nanomaterials for Sustainable Agriculture.

Research on plant-nanomaterial interactions has greatly advanced over the past decade. One particularly fascinating discovery encompasses the immunomodulatory effects in plants. Due to the low doses needed and the comparatively low toxicity of many nanomaterials, nanoenabled immunomodulation is environmentally and economically promising for agriculture. It may reduce environmental costs associated with excessive use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, which can lead to soil and water pollution. Furthermore, nanoenabled strategies can enhance plant resilience against various biotic and abiotic stresses, contributing to the sustainability of agricultural ecosystems and the reduction of crop losses due to environmental factors. While nanoparticle immunomodulatory effects are relatively well-known in animals, they are still to be understood in plants. Here, we provide our perspective on the general components of the plant's immune system, including the signaling pathways, networks, and molecules of relevance for plant nanomodulation. We discuss the recent scientific progress in nanoenabled immunomodulation and nanopriming and lay out key avenues to use plant immunomodulation for agriculture. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade, and the calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK or CPK) pathway are of particular interest due to their interconnected function and significance in the response to biotic and abiotic stress. Additionally, we underscore that understanding the plant hormone salicylic acid is vital for nanoenabled applications to induce systemic acquired resistance. It is suggested that a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating environmental impact assessments and focusing on scalability, can expedite the realization of enhanced crop yields through nanotechnology while fostering a healthier environment.

Sericin based nanoformulations: a comprehensive review on molecular mechanisms of interaction with organisms to biological applications.

BACKGROUND: The advances in products based on nanotechnology have directed extensive research on low-cost, biologically compatible, and easily degradable materials. MAIN BODY: Sericin (SER) is a protein mainly composed of glycine, serine, aspartic acid, and threonine amino acids removed from the silkworm cocoon (particularly Bombyx mori and other species). SER is a biocompatible material with economic viability, which can be easily functionalized due to its potential crosslink reactions. Also, SER has inherent biological properties, which makes possible its use as a component of pharmaceutical formulations with several biomedical applications, such as anti-tumor, antimicrobials, antioxidants and as scaffolds for tissue repair as well as participating in molecular mechanisms attributed to the regulation of transcription factors, reduction of inflammatory signaling molecules, stimulation of apoptosis, migration, and proliferation of mesenchymal cells. CONCLUSION: In this review, the recent innovations on SER-based nano-medicines (nanoparticles, micelles, films, hydrogels, and their hybrid systems) and their contributions for non-conventional therapies are discussed considering different molecular mechanisms for promoting their therapeutic applications.

How does aquatic macrophyte Salvinia auriculata respond to nanoceria upon an increased CO2 source? A Fourier transform-infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy and chlorophyll a fluorescence study.

With the continued increase of technological uses of cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeO2 NPs or nanoceria) and their unregulated disposal, the accumulation of nanoceria in the environment is inevitable. Concomitantly, atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels continue to rise, increasing the concentrations of bicarbonate ions in aquatic ecosystems. This study investigates the influence of CeO2 NPs (from 0 to 100 µgL-1) in the presence and absence of an elevated bicarbonate (HCO3-) ion concentration (1 mM), on vibrational biochemical parameters and photosystem II (PSII) activity in leaf discs of Salvinia auriculata. Fourier transform-infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy (FTIR-PAS) was capable of diagnostic use to understand biochemical and metabolic changes in leaves submitted to the CeO2 NPs and also detected interactive responses between CeO2 NPs and HCO3- exposure at the tissue level. The results showed that the higher CeO2 NPs levels in the presence of HCO3- increased the non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and coefficient of photochemical quenching in dark (qPd) compared to the absence of HCO3. Moreover, the presence of HCO3- significantly decreased the NPQ at all levels of CeO2 NPs demonstrating that HCO3- exposure may change the non-radiative process involved in the operation of the photosynthetic apparatus. Overall, the results of this study are useful for providing baseline information on the interactive effects of CeO2 NPs and elevated HCO3- ion concentration on photosynthetic systems.

Nano based drug delivery systems: recent developments and future prospects.

Nanomedicine and nano delivery systems are a relatively new but rapidly developing science where materials in the nanoscale range are employed to serve as means of diagnostic tools or to deliver therapeutic agents to specific targeted sites in a controlled manner. Nanotechnology offers multiple benefits in treating chronic human diseases by site-specific, and target-oriented delivery of precise medicines. Recently, there are a number of outstanding applications of the nanomedicine (chemotherapeutic agents, biological agents, immunotherapeutic agents etc.) in the treatment of various diseases. The current review, presents an updated summary of recent advances in the field of nanomedicines and nano based drug delivery systems through comprehensive scrutiny of the discovery and application of nanomaterials in improving both the efficacy of novel and old drugs (e.g., natural products) and selective diagnosis through disease marker molecules. The opportunities and challenges of nanomedicines in drug delivery from synthetic/natural sources to their clinical applications are also discussed. In addition, we have included information regarding the trends and perspectives in nanomedicine area.

Nanotechnology Applied to Bio-Encapsulation of Pesticides.

In recent years, many efforts have been made towards the application of nanotechnology in sustainable food production. In this context, the bio-encapsulation process has taken prominence in particular as an ecofriendly method for pest control while reducing the pesticide load in the environment considerably. By taking into consideration, here we are presenting an overview regarding the prospects for the development of nanoencapsulated pesticides in sustainable agriculture and highlight some challenges to be addressed in order to develop efficient nano-carrier systems that may arise as an alternative for conventional pesticide application. However, much research has to be done in this area in order to develop safe and promising pesticide delivery systems for increasing global food production by enhancing the selectivity, specificity and longevity of the encapsulated pesticides while reducing the negative environmental impacts to ecosystem and human beings.

Lignocellulosic-biomolecules conjugated systems: green-engineered complexes modified by covalent linkers.

Lignocellulosic biomass represents an abundant and eco-friendly material widely explored in recent years. The main lignocellulosic fractions include cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Nonetheless, the heterogeneity and complexity of these components pose challenges in achieving the desired properties. Conversely, their attractive functional groups can covalently link with other biomolecules, facilitating the creation and enhancement of material properties. Lignocellulosic molecules can form different linkages with other biomolecules through classic and modern methods. Bioconjugation has emerged as a suitable alternative to create new nuances, empowering the linkage between lignocellulosic materials and biomolecules through linkers. These conjugates (lignocellulosic-linkers-biomolecules) attract attention from stakeholders in medicine, chemistry, biology, and agriculture. The plural formations of these biocomplexes highlight the significance of these arrangements. Therefore, this review provides an overview of the progress of lignocellulosic-biomolecule complexes and discusses different types of covalent bioconjugated systems, considering the formation of linkers, applicability, toxicity, and future challenges.

Nanoparticles and plants: A focus on analytical characterization techniques.

Nanotechnology has brought about significant progress through the use of goods based on nanomaterials. However, concerns remain about the accumulation of these materials in the environment and their potential toxicity to living organisms. Plants have the ability to take in nanomaterials (NMs), which can cause changes in their physiology and morphology. On the other hand, nanoparticles (NPs) have been used to increase plant development and control pests in agriculture by including them into agrochemicals. The challenges of the interaction, internalization, and accumulation of NMs within plant tissues are enormous, mainly because of the various characteristics of NMs and the absence of reliable analytical tools. As our knowledge of the interactions between NMs and plant cells expands, we are able to create novel NMs that are tailored, targeted, and designed to be safe, thus minimizing the environmental consequences of nanomaterials. This review provides a thorough examination and comparison of the main microscopy techniques, spectroscopic methods, and far-field super-resolution methodologies used to examine nanomaterials within the cell walls of plants.

Polysaccharide-based sustainable hydrogel spheres for controlled release of agricultural inputs.

Producing food in quantity and quality to meet the growing population demand is a challenge for the coming years. In addition to the need to improve the use and efficiency of conventional agricultural inputs, we face climate change and disparity in access to food. In this context, creating innovative, efficient, and ecologically approaches is necessary to transform this global scenario. Several delivery systems are being developed to encapsulate agrochemicals, aiming to improve the controlled release of active ingredients and protect them against environmental biotic and abiotic factors. Among these systems, we highlight the hydrogel spheres, which can be made of biodegradable materials and allow the encapsulation of molecules, nanomaterials, and even organisms (e.g., bacteria and fungi). This review provides an overview of the latest progress in developing polysaccharide-based hydrogel spheres for agriculture. In addition, we describe methods for preparing hydrogel spheres and discuss the encapsulation and release of agricultural inputs in the field. Finally, we put hydrogel spheres into perspective and seek to highlight some current challenges in the field to spark new inspiration and improve the development of environmentally friendly and cost-effective delivery systems for the agricultural sector.

Effect of hyaluronic acid-stabilized silver nanoparticles on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seed germination.

Nanotechnology has brought significant advancements to agriculture through the development of engineered nanomaterials (ENPs). Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) capped with polysaccharides have been applied in agricultural diagnostics, crop pest management, and seed priming. Hyaluronic acid (HA), a natural polysaccharide with bactericidal properties, has been considered a growth regulator for plant tissues and an inducer of systemic resistance against plant diseases. Additionally, HA has been employed as a stabilizing agent for AgNPs. This study investigated the synthesis and effects of hyaluronic acid-stabilized silver nanoparticles (HA-AgNPs) as a seed priming agent on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seed germination. HA-AgNPs were characterized using several techniques, exhibiting spherical morphology and good colloidal stability. Germination assays conducted with 0.1, 0.04, and 0.02 g/L of HA-AgNPs showed a concentration-dependent reduction in seed germination. Conversely, lower concentrations of HA-AgNPs significantly increased germination rates, survival, tolerance indices, and seed water absorption compared to silver ions (Ag+). SEM/EDS indicated more significant potential for HA-AgNPs internalization compared to Ag+. Therefore, these findings are innovative and open new avenues for understanding the impact of Ag+ and HA-AgNPs on seed germination.

CuO nanoparticles' effect on the photosynthetic performance in seed tissues of Inga laurina (Fabaceae).

Copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs) have been produced on a large scale because they can be applied across various fields, especially in nano-enabled healthcare and agricultural products. However, the increasing use of CuONPs leads to their release and accumulation into the environment. The CuONPs uptaken by seeds and their implications on germination behavior have been reported, but little is known or understood about their impact on photosynthesis in seed tissues. To fill knowledge gaps, this study evaluated the effects of CuONP concentrations (0-300 mg L-1) on the photosynthetic activity of Inga laurina seeds. The microscopy data showed that CuONPs had an average size distribution of 57.5 ± 0.7 nm. Copper ion release and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by CuONPs were also evaluated by dialysis and spectroscopy experiments, respectively. CuONPs were not able to intrinsically generate ROS and released a low content of Cu2⁺ ions (4.5%, w/w). Time evolution of chlorophyll fluorescence imaging and laser-induced fluorescence spectroscopy were used to monitor the seeds subjected to nanoparticles during 168 h. The data demonstrate that CuONPs affected the steady-state maximum chlorophyll fluorescence ( F m ' ), the photochemical efficiency of photosystem II ( F v / F m ), and non-photochemical quenching ( NPQ ) of Inga laurina seeds over time. Besides, the NPQ significantly increased at the seed development stage, near the root protrusion stage, probably due to energy dissipation at this germination step. Additionally, the results indicated that CuONPs can change the oscillatory rhythms of energy dissipation of the seeds, disturbing the circadian clock. In conclusion, the results indicate that CuONPs can affect the photosynthetic behavior of I. laurina seeds. These findings open opportunities for using chlorophyll fluorescence as a non-destructive tool to evaluate nanoparticle impact on photosynthetic activity in seed tissues.

Transcriptional response of Cu-deficient barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) to foliar-applied nano-Cu: Molecular crosstalk between Cu loading into plants and changes in Cu homeostasis genes.

For safe and effective nutrient management, the cutting-edge approaches to plant fertilization are continuously developed. The aim of the study was to analyze the transcriptional response of barley suffering from Cu deficiency to foliar application of nanoparticulate Cu (nano-Cu) and its ionic form (CuSO4) at 100 and 1000 mg L-1 for the examination of their supplementing effect. The initial interactions of Cu-compounds with barley leaves were analyzed with spectroscopic (ICP-OES) and microscopic (SEM-EDS) methods. To determine Cu cellular status, the impact of Cu-compounds on the expression of genes involved in regulating Cu homeostasis (PAA1, PAA2, RAN1, COPT5), aquaporins (NIP2.1, PIP1.1, TIP1.1, TIP1.2) and antioxidant defense response (SOD CuZn, SOD Fe, SOD Mn, CAT) after 1 and 7 days of exposure was analyzed. Although Cu accumulation in plant leaves was detected overtime, the Cu content in leaves exposed to nano-Cu for 7 days was 44.5% lower than in CuSO4 at 100 mg L-1. However, nano-Cu aggregates remaining on the leaf surface indicated a potential difference between measured Cu content and the real Cu pool present in the plant. Our study revealed significant changes in the pattern of gene expression overtime depending on Cu-compound type and dose. Despite the initial puzzling patterns of gene expression, after 7 days all Cu transporters showed significant down-regulation under Cu-compounds exposure to prevent Cu excess in plant cells. Conversely, aquaporin gene expression was induced after 7 days, especially by nano-Cu and CuSO4 at 100 mg L-1 due to the stimulatory effect of low Cu doses. Our study revealed that the gradual release of Cu ions from nano-Cu at a lower rate provided a milder molecular response than CuSO4. It might indicate that nano-Cu maintained better metal balance in plants than the conventional compounds, thus may be considered as a long-term supplier of Cu.

Assessing the Fate of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Carrying Usnic Acid as Chemical Cargo on the Soil Microbial Community.

In the present study we evaluate the effect of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) carrying usnic acid (UA) as chemical cargo on the soil microbial community in a dystrophic red latosol (oxysol). Herein, 500 ppm UA or SPIONs-framework carrying UA were diluted in sterile ultrapure deionized water and applied by hand sprayer on the top of the soil. The experiment was conducted in a growth chamber at 25 °C, with a relative humidity of 80% and a 16 h/8 h light-dark cycle (600 lx light intensity) for 30 days. Sterile ultrapure deionized water was used as the negative control; uncapped and oleic acid (OA) capped SPIONs were also tested to assess their potential effects. Magnetic nanostructures were synthesized by a coprecipitation method and characterized by scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), zeta potential, hydrodynamic diameter, magnetic measurements, and release kinetics of chemical cargo. Uncapped and OA-capped SPIONs did not significantly affect soil microbial community. Our results showed an impairment in the soil microbial community exposed to free UA, leading to a general decrease in negative effects on soil-based parameters when bioactive was loaded into the nanoscale magnetic carrier. Besides, compared to control, the free UA caused a significant decrease in microbial biomass C (39%), on the activity of acid protease (59%), and acid phosphatase (23%) enzymes, respectively. Free UA also reduced eukaryotic 18S rRNA gene abundance, suggesting a major impact on fungi. Our findings indicate that SPIONs as bioherbicide nanocarriers can reduce the negative impacts on soil. Therefore, nanoenabled biocides may improve agricultural productivity, which is important for food security due to the need of increasing food production.

CeO2 nanostructured electrochemical sensor for the simultaneous recognition of diethylstilbestrol and 17ß-estradiol hormones.

A new highly sensitive, selective, and inexpensive electrochemical method has been developed for simultaneously detecting diethylstilbestrol (DES) and 17ß-estradiol (E2) in environmental samples (groundwater and lake water) using a graphite sensor modified by cerium oxide nanoparticles (CPE-CeO2 NPs). The developed sensor and the materials used in its preparation were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The ab initio simulation was used to evaluate the adsorption energies between both DES and E2 with the surface of the sensor. The peak current of oxidation of both hormones showed two regions of linearity. The region of greatest sensitivity was observed for the linear range of 10 nM-100 nM. The detection and quantification limits for this concentration range were 0.8/2.6 nM and 1.3/4.3 nM for DES and E2, respectively. The analytical performance of the developed method showed high sensitivity, precision, repeatability, reproducibility, and selectivity. The CPE-CeO2 NPs sensor was successfully applied to simultaneously detect DES and E2 in real samples with recovery levels above 98%.

Nanoparticles as a potential protective agent for arsenic toxicity alleviation in plants.

Aggrandized technological and industrial progression in past decades have occasioned immense depreciation in the quality of environment and ecosystem, majorly due to augmentation in the number of obnoxious pollutants incessantly being released in soil, water or air. Arsenic (As) is one such hazardous metalloid contaminating the environment which has the potential to detrimentally affect the life on earth. Even in minute quantity, As is known to cause various critical diseases in humans and toxicity in plants. Recent studies on nanoparticles (NPs) approve of their ability to qualify the criterion of becoming a potent tool for mitigating As-induced phytotoxicity. Nanoparticles are reported to promote plant growth under As-stress by stimulating various alterations at physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels. In this review, we provide an up-to-date compilation of research that has been carried out in comprehending the mechanisms utilized by nanoparticles including controlled As uptake and distribution in plants, maintenance of ROS homeostasis during stress and chelation and vacuolar sequestration of As so as to reduce the severity of toxicity induced by As, and potential areas of research in this field will also be indicated for future perspectives.

Silicon nanoforms in crop improvement and stress management.

Although, silicon - the second most abundant element in the earth crust could not supersede carbon (C) in the competition of being the building block of life during evolution, yet its presence has been reported in some life forms. In case of the plants, silicon has been reported widely to promote the plant growth under normal as well as stressful situations. Nanoform of silicon is now being explored for its potential to improve plant productivity and its tolerance against various stresses. Silicon nanoparticles (SiNPs) in the form of nanofertilizers, nanoherbicides, nanopesticides, nanosensors and targeted delivery systems, find great utilization in the field of agriculture. However, the mechanisms underlying their uptake by plants need to be deciphered in detail. Silicon nanoformss are reported to enhance plant growth, majorly by improving photosynthesis rate, elevating nutrient uptake and mitigating reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced oxidative stress. Various studies have reported their ability to provide tolerance against a range of stresses by upregulating plant defense responses. Moreover, they are proclaimed not to have any detrimental impacts on environment yet. This review includes the up-to-date information in context of the eminent role of silicon nanoforms in crop improvement and stress management, supplemented with suggestions for future research in this field.

Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) nanocapsules containing benzocaine: influence of the composition of the oily nucleus on physico-chemical properties and anesthetic activity.

PURPOSE: The aim of this work was to investigate the influence of the oily nucleus composition on physico-chemical properties and anesthetic activity of poly (lactide-co-glycolide) nanocapsules with benzocaine. METHODS: Nanocapsules containing benzocaine were prepared with three different oily nucleus composition and characterized by mean diameter, polydispersivity, zeta potential, pH and stability were investigated as a function of time. In vitro release kinetics were performed in a system with two compartments separated by a cellulose membrane. Intensity and duration of analgesia were evaluated in rats by sciatic nerve blockade. RESULTS: The greatest stability, slower release profile and improvement in the local anesthetic activity of BZC were obtained with the formulation using USP mineral oil as component. CONCLUSIONS: Results from our study provide useful perspectives on selection of the primary materials needed to produce suspensions of polymeric nanocapsules able to act as carriers of BZC, with potential future application in the treatment of pain.

Screening of formulation variables for the preparation of poly(epsilon-caprolactone) nanocapsules containing the local anesthetic benzocaine.

In this work we describe the screening of four parameters in the preparation, by nanoprecipitation, of poly(epsilon-caprolactone) nanocapsules, used as a drug carrier system for the local anesthetic, benzocaine. A 2(4-1) factorial experimental design was used to study the influence of four different independent variables (polymer, oily phase, Span 60 and Tween 80) on nanocapsule characteristics (size, polydispersion index, zeta potential) and drug loading capability. Best results were obtained using an aqueous formulation comprising 100 mg of polymer, 200 mg of oily phase, 40 mg of Span 60 and 60 mg of Tween 80 in a final volume of 10 mL which produced a colloidal system with particle size of 188 nm, zeta potential -32 mV, polydispersion index 0.07, and benzocaine association efficiency > 87%. These findings open the way for future clinical studies using such formulations.

Effect of a nanostructured dendrimer-naloxonazine complex on endogenous opioid peptides µ1 receptor-mediated post-ictal antinociception.

The aim of this study was to investigate the capacity of the host dendrimer DAB-Am-16 as a drug carrier to reduce the time required for the encapsulated naloxonaxine to establish an irreversible covalent bond with µ(1)-opioid receptor (resulting in a pharmacologically selective effect). The efficacy of dendrimer-naloxonazine nanocomplex (DNC) was studied in antinociception induced by convulsions elicited by intraperitoneal (IP) administration of pentylenetetrazole, and analgesia was measured by the tail-flick test. We found that animals showed increased tail-flick latencies following convulsions. Furthermore, acute pre-treatment (10 minutes) with DNC, but not with naloxonazine alone, antagonized post-ictal analgesia in comparison with control pre-treatment. However, naloxonazine treatment 24 hours before PTZ decreased post-ictal antinociception, but DNC failed to antagonize tonic-clonic seizure-induced analgesia. In addition, according to Racine's index of seizure severity, naloxonazine, DAB-Am-16 dendrimer or DNC did not influence seizure severity when administered either 10 minutes or 24 hours before PTZ. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR: This study characterizes the effect of a dendrimer-naloxonazine complex on µ1 receptor-mediated post-ictal antinociception in an animal model of seizure disorder.

Is centrifugal ultrafiltration a robust method for determining encapsulation efficiency of pesticide nanoformulations?

Loading active ingredients on nanocarrier systems is becoming a common strategy for improving pesticide formulations. One of the most important properties of these nanoformulations is the proportion of pesticide associated with the nanocarriers (encapsulation efficiency, EE). EE is often determined by centrifugal ultrafiltration. However, the losses of active ingredient in the centrifugal ultrafiltration devices are typically not assessed, potentially leading to erroneous results. In this work, the losses of three pesticides (tebuconazole, terbuthylazine and chlorpyrifos) during centrifugal ultrafiltration have been systematically evaluated for nine different devices. Results suggest that centrifugal ultrafiltration is not suitable for determining the EE of compounds such as chlorpyrifos as 100% losses were observed on all the devices tested. Losses of tebuconazole and terbuthylazine were highly variable according to the type of membrane and the lowest losses were observed in the devices with hydrophilic regenerated cellulose membranes. Based on these results, we propose a correction factor and demonstrate its application to calculate the EE of two nanoformulations based on poly(ε-caprolactone) nanocarriers. The approach extends the applicability of centrifugal ultrafiltration to a wider range of pesticide nanoformulations. We also discuss the effect of dilution on EE and make recommendations to improve the characterisation of nanoparticles-based pesticide nanoformulations in the future.

The Differences between the Effects of a Nanoformulation and a Conventional Form of Atrazine to Lettuce: Physiological Responses, Defense Mechanisms, and Nutrient Displacement.

The rapid development of nanotechnology influences the developments within the agro-sector. An example is provided by the production of nanoenabled pesticides with the intention to optimize the efficiency of the pesticides. At the same time, it is important to collect information on the unintended and unwanted adverse effects of emerging nanopesticides on nontarget plants. Currently, this information is limited. In the present study, we compared the effects of a nanoformulation of atrazine (NPATZ) and the nonencapsulated atrazine formulation (ATZ) on physiological responses, defense mechanisms, and nutrient displacement in lettuce over time with the applied concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 3 mg atrazine per kg soil. Our results revealed that both NPATZ and ATZ induced significant decreases in plant biomass, chlorophyll content, and protein content. Additionally, exposure to NPATZ and ATZ caused oxidative stress to the lettuce plant and significantly elevated the activities of the tested ROS scavenger enzymes in plant tissues. These results indicate that NPATZ and ATZ cause distinct adverse impacts on lettuce plants. When comparing the adverse effects in plants after exposure to NPATZ and ATZ, no obvious differences in plant biomass and chlorophyll content were observed between NPATZ and ATZ treatments at the same exposure concentration regardless of exposure duration. An enhanced efficiency of the active ingredient of the nanopesticide as compared to the conventional formulation was observed after long-term exposure to the high concentration of NPATZ, as it induced higher impacts on plants in terms of the end points of the contents of protein, superoxide anion (O2̇-), and MDA, and the activities of stress-related enzymes as compared to the same concentration of ATZ. Furthermore, exposure to both NPATZ and ATZ disrupted the uptake of mineral nutrients in plants, and the differences in the displacement of nutrients between the NPATZ and ATZ treatments depended on the element type, plant organ, exposure concentration, and time. Overall, the application dose of a nanopesticide should balance their increased herbicidal efficiency with the long-term adverse effects in order to maximize the desired impact while minimizing adverse impacts; only then will we be able to understand the potential impact of nanopesticides on the environment.