Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children rose and fell with the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in France.

AIM: This study determined the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on the occurrence of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and compared the main characteristics of MIS-C and Kawasaki disease (KD). METHODS: We included patients aged up to 18 years of age who were diagnosed with MIS-C or KD in a paediatric university hospital in Paris from 1 January 2018 to 15 July 2020. Clinical, laboratory and imaging characteristics were compared, and new French COVID-19 cases were correlated with MIS-C cases in our hospital. RESULTS: There were seven children with MIS-C, from 6 months to 12 years of age, who were all positive for the virus that causes COVID-19, and 40 virus-negative children with KD. Their respective characteristics were as follows: under 5 years of age (14.3% vs. 85.0%), paediatric intensive care unit admission (100% vs. 10.0%), abdominal pain (71.4% vs. 12.5%), myocardial dysfunction (85.7% vs. 5.0%), shock syndrome (85.7% vs. 2.5%) and mean and standard deviation C-reactive protein (339 ± 131 vs. 153 ± 87). There was a strong lagged correlation between the rise and fall in MIS-C patients and COVID-19 cases. CONCLUSION: The rise and fall of COVID-19 first wave mirrored the MIS-C cases. There were important differences between MIS-C and KD.

Bone and joint infections in infants under three months of age.

AIM: Studies on bone and joint infections (BJI) in infants under three months are rare. We described the clinical and paraclinical features and outcomes of infants hospitalised with BJI under three months of age. METHODS: The French National Hospital Discharge Database provided data on BJIs in infants under three months of age from January 2004 to 2015 in three Parisian Paediatric teaching hospitals. RESULTS: We included 71 infants under three months of age with BJI, the median age was 25 days, and the interquartile range (IQR) was 17-43 days. The most common infection sites were the hip (32%) and knee (32%). Symptoms included pain (94%), limited mobility (87%) and/or fever (52%). There were 11 (15.5%) cases of nosocomial BJI. A pathogen was identified in 51 infants (71.8%), including Streptococcus agalactiae (45%), Staphylococcus aureus (22%) and Escherichia coli (18%). The initial median C-reactive protein test rate was 31 mg/L (IQR 17-68). Of the 34 infants followed for more than one year, four developed severe orthopaedic conditions such as epiphysiodesis, limb length discrepancy, bone necrosis and/or impaired limb function. CONCLUSION: Streptococcus agalactiae was the most common cause of BJI in infants under three months. Orthopaedic sequelae were rare, but severe, and required long-term follow-up.

An innovative pedagogic course combining video and simulation to teach medical students about pediatric cardiopulmonary arrest: a prospective controlled study.

UNLABELLED: Compliance by residents in pediatrics to pediatric resuscitation guidelines is low. In many French faculties, a 1-h traditional lecture is still used to educate medical students about pediatric cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA). We developed an innovative pedagogic course combining a 23-min video and 3-h simulation exercises to improve knowledge and skills of medical students. A prospective controlled study was conducted. Medical student knowledge was tested before, just after, and 6-12 months after the innovative course and compared to that of a cohort who attended the traditional lecture. A high-fidelity mannequin simulator simulating cardiopulmonary arrest was used to assess and compare the skills of the study and control groups. Costs of the courses were evaluated; 809 of 860 (94 %) medical students were assessed for knowledge. Six to 12 months after the courses, the median score was significantly higher for the innovative group than that for the traditional lecture group (p < 0.001). In terms of skills, student in the innovative group scored higher on the performance score than the control group (p < 0.01). The innovative course was 24 times more expensive. CONCLUSION: Combination of video and simulation allows better retention of knowledge than a traditional lecture and leads to better compliance to resuscitation guidelines. WHAT IS KNOWN: • Compliance by residents to pediatric resuscitation guidelines is low. • We developed an innovative pedagogic course combining an educational video and simulation. What is new: • Knowledge retention after the innovative course was better than after a traditional lecture. • Sixty-six students tested on their skills demonstrated better compliance to resuscitation guidelines.

Compliance with the current recommendations for prescribing antibiotics for paediatric community-acquired pneumonia is improving: data from a prospective study in a French network.

BACKGROUND: Lower respiratory tract infection is a common cause of consultation and antibiotic prescription in paediatric practice. The misuse of antibiotics is a major cause of the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria. The aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency, changes over time, and determinants of non-compliance with antibiotic prescription recommendations for children admitted in paediatric emergency department (PED) with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). METHODS: We conducted a prospective two-period study using data from the French pneumonia network that included all children with CAP, aged one month to 15 years old, admitted to one of the ten participating paediatric emergency departments. In the first period, data from children included in all ten centres were analysed. In the second period, we analysed children in three centers for which we collected additional data. Two experts assessed compliance with the current French recommendations. Independent determinants of non-compliance were evaluated using a logistic regression model. The frequency of non-compliance was compared between the two periods for the same centres in univariate analysis, after adjustment for confounding factors. RESULTS: A total of 3034 children were included during the first period (from May 2009 to May 2011) and 293 in the second period (from January to July 2012). Median ages were 3.0 years [1.4-5] in the first period and 3.6 years in the second period. The main reasons for non-compliance were the improper use of broad-spectrum antibiotics or combinations of antibiotics. Factors that were independently associated with non-compliance with recommendations were younger age, presence of risk factors for pneumococcal infection, and hospitalization. We also observed significant differences in compliance between the treatment centres during the first period. The frequency of non-compliance significantly decreased from 48 to 18.8 % between 2009 and 2012. The association between period and non-compliance remained statistically significant after adjustment for confounding factors. Amoxicillin was prescribed as the sole therapy significantly more frequently in the second period (71 % vs. 54.2 %, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: We observed a significant increase in the compliance with recommendations, with a reduction in the prescription of broad-spectrum antibiotics, efforts to improve antibiotic prescriptions must continue.

Oral Ambulatory Treatment of Acute Osteomyelitis in Children: A Case-Control Study.

The treatment of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis has evolved in recent years to a shorter parenteral treatment with an early switch to the oral route. Current publications recommend a 2- to 4-day parenteral treatment before the oral switch. We retrospectively analyzed a series of 45 children aged 1 to 11 years and treated in our department for acute osteomyelitis without severity criterion. Nineteen of 45 patients were treated by an exclusive ambulatory oral treatment by amoxicillin and clavulanic acid. Twenty six of 45 patients had a 2- to 4-day parenteral treatment before the oral switch. The minimum follow-up was 6 months. The primary endpoint was a clinical, radiographic, and biologic healing, 6 months after the beginning of the treatment. The secondary endpoints evaluated were the length of hospitalization, the total duration of treatment, and the type of antibiotic used. On the primary endpoint, we did not find any significant difference between the 2 treatments (P = 0.38). On the duration of treatment, we found a significant difference (P = 0.049) in favor of oral treatment. The ambulatory oral treatment by amoxicillin and clavulanic acid seems to be a valid alternative to the classical parenteral then oral sequence in the treatment of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis in children without severity criterion.

Escherichia coli virulence patterns may help to predict vesicoureteral reflux in paediatric urinary tract infections.

AIM: Ultrasound and biological tools are used to predict high-grade vesicoureteral reflux, but other markers are needed to better select patients who need voiding cystography. Our aim was to determine whether studying Escherichia coli virulence factors would help to predict vesicoureteral reflux in patients with their first acute pyelonephritis. METHODS: We included children presenting with E. coli-related acute pyelonephritis or cystitis. Vesicoureteral reflux was assessed by voiding cystography. Virulence factors were identified by multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Statistical analysis was performed using logistic regression and the mean c-statistic test. RESULTS: We included 198 patients: 30 with cystitis and 168 with acute pyelonephritis, including 46 with vesicoureteral reflux. High-grade reflux was associated with acute pyelonephritis caused by the E. coli lacking virulence factors papGII (82% versus 47%, p < 0.001) or papC (85% versus 53%, p < 0.001) or belonging to phylogenetic group A or B1. When we added genetic data (lack of papGII, fyuA and phylogenetic groups) to classical predictors of vesicoureteral reflux (ultrasound examination, gender, age), the ability to predict high-grade reflux increased, with the c-statistic rising from 0.88 to 0.93. CONCLUSION: Bacterial virulence factors and clinical factors helped to predict high-grade reflux and may help to avoid unnecessary voiding cystographies.

Invasive pneumococcal disease in children can reveal a primary immunodeficiency.

BACKGROUND: About 10% of pediatric patients with invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) die from the disease. Some primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) are known to confer predisposition to IPD. However, a systematic search for these PIDs has never been carried out in children presenting with IPD. METHODS: We prospectively identified pediatric cases of IPD requiring hospitalization between 2005 and 2011 in 28 pediatric wards throughout France. IPD was defined as a positive pneumococcal culture, polymerase chain reaction result, and/or soluble antigen detection at a normally sterile site. The immunological assessment included abdominal ultrasound, whole-blood counts and smears, determinations of plasma immunoglobulin and complement levels, and the evaluation of proinflammatory cytokines. RESULTS: We included 163 children with IPD (male-to-female ratio, 1.3; median age, 13 months). Seventeen children had recurrent IPD. Meningitis was the most frequent type of infection (87%); other infections included pleuropneumonitis, isolated bloodstream infection, osteomyelitis, endocarditis, and mastoiditis. One patient with recurrent meningitis had a congenital cerebrospinal fluid fistula. The results of immunological explorations were abnormal in 26 children (16%), and a PID was identified in 17 patients (10%), including 1 case of MyD88 deficiency, 3 of complement fraction C2 or C3 deficiencies, 1 of isolated congenital asplenia, and 2 of Bruton disease (X-linked agammaglobulinemia). The proportion of PIDs was much higher in children aged >2 years than in younger children (26% vs 3%; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Children with IPD should undergo immunological investigations, particularly those aged >2 years, as PIDs may be discovered in up to 26% of cases.

Rapid molecular diagnosis of measles virus infection in an epidemic setting.

During the 2011 measles outbreak in Paris (France), patients with clinical suspicion of measles were tested for virological confirmation of measles virus (MV) infection. To assess the practical value of molecular diagnosis in an epidemic setting, 171 oral fluid samples and 235 serum samples collected from 270 patients were tested prospectively for MV-RNA using a novel one-step real-time RT-PCR assay including an internal control. Serum samples were also tested for MV-specific IgG and IgM antibodies. MV infection was confirmed by detection of MV-RNA and/or MV-IgM for 229 of the 270 patients. The results for the 102 cases with both serum and oral fluid samples available were used to compare the techniques. The detection rate of MV-RNA by RT-PCR was 98% (100/102) for oral fluid and 95% (97/102) for serum samples. The detection rate of MV-IgM was 85% (87/102). Negative MV-IgM results were observed mostly for serum samples collected early after the onset of the rash. A MV-RNA standard of known concentration obtained by in vitro transcription was used to quantify MV-RNA in samples. MV-RNA copy numbers were significantly higher in oral fluid than in serum samples, but did not correlate with time of sampling (within 1 week after the onset of the rash), patient age, or vaccination status. During the early stage of infection, the MV-RNA viral load in serum was lower in patients positive than in those negative for MV-IgG. In conclusion, the one-step real-time RT-PCR assay is a simple and sensitive tool suitable for MV diagnosis within hours.

[Pediatric emergency care in pediatric hospitals in France]. / Les urgences en pédiatrie dans les hôpitaux d'enfants.

Emergency medicine has evolved considerably over the last 25 years in France, driven by major sociological and epidemiological upheavals, and is now a high-level and academic specialty. Pediatric emergency units were originally modeled on adult emergency services and now meet the same efficiency criteria. However, the reduction in care supply, together with the simultaneous increase in demand, has created significant deficiencies. This is particularly true in pediatric teaching hospitals, which deal with the highest volume of patients but are subject to cost-cutting and eficiency measures. The main problems are the lack of flow management upstream and inadequate hospital capacity downstream. Solutions have been proposed to mitigate these issues but more efforts are needed.

Definitions and implications of the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic parameters of antibiotics in pediatric clinical practice.

Knowledge of infectious diseases and their treatments is constantly evolving. New infectious agents are regularly discovered, mainly due to improvement of identification techniques, especially the development of molecular biology and mass spectrometry. While changes in the epidemiology of infectious diseases are not always predictable or readily understood, several factors regularly enter into consideration, such as not only the natural history of diseases, the impact of vaccinations, but also the excessive and irrational use of antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance is now recognized as one of the major challenges for humanity, especially since few new molecules have been put on the market in recent years. These molecules are reserved for serious infections caused by bacteria resistant to other antibiotics and should only be prescribed by infectious diseases specialists trained in their use. Rationalization of antibiotic therapy is therefore one of the keys to reducing antibiotic resistance and the spread of resistant bacteria. In this guide, for each clinical situation, the bacterial target(s) of antibiotic treatment, the preferred antibiotic choice, and the therapeutic alternatives will be specified. Comments on the diagnosis and treatment of the infection will be added if necessary.

Antibiotic treatment of neuro-meningeal infections.

In France, conjugated pneumococcal vaccination has considerably modified the profile of pneumococcal meningitis by eliminating the most virulent strains resistant to beta-lactams. Over recent years, the nationwide pediatric meningitis network of the Pediatric Infectious Disease Group (GPIP) and the National Reference Centre of Pneumococci have not recorded any cases of meningitis due to pneumococcus resistant to third-generation cephalosporins (C3G), even though in 2021, strains with a less favorable profile appeared to emerge. These recent data justify renewal of the 2016 recommendations and limitation of vancomycin to the secondary phase of treatment of pneumococcal meningitis when the MIC of the isolated strain against injectable C3Gs is >0.5 mg/L. The only major change proposed by the GPIP in this 2023 update of its recommendations is discontinuation of the recommendation of a combination of ciprofloxacin and cefotaxime in Escherichia coli meningitis in newborns and young infants. The nationwide observatory of meningitis in children is a valuable tool because of its completeness and its continuity over the past 15 years. The maintenance of epidemiological surveillance will allow us to adapt new therapeutic regimens to the evolution of pneumococcal susceptibility profiles and to future serotype-specific changes. Community-acquired cerebral abscesses are rare diseases, of which the management requires a rigorous approach: high-quality imaging, bacteriological sampling prior to antibiotic therapy whenever possible, and antibiotic treatment including metronidazole in addition to cefotaxime. Multidisciplinary collaboration, including infectious disease and neurosurgical advice, is always called for.

The principles of curative antibiotic treatments.

Knowledge of infectious diseases and their treatments is constantly evolving. New infectious agents are regularly discovered, due mainly to improvement of identification techniques, especially the development of molecular biology and mass spectrometry. While changes in the epidemiology of infectious diseases are not always predictable or readily understood, several factors regularly enter into consideration, such as not only the natural history of diseases and the impact of vaccinations, but also the excessive and irrational use of antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance is now recognized as one of the major challenges for humanity, especially since few new molecules have been put on the market in recent years. These molecules are reserved for serious infections caused by bacteria resistant to other antibiotics and should be prescribed only by infectious disease specialists trained in their use. Rationalization of antibiotic therapy is therefore one of the keys to reducing antibiotic resistance and the spread of resistant bacteria. In this guide, with regard to each clinical situation, the bacterial target(s) of antibiotic treatment, the preferred antibiotic choice, and the therapeutic alternatives will be specified. Comments on diagnosis and treatment of the infection will be added if necessary.

Antimicrobial treatment of urinary tract infections in children.

Urinary tract infections are the most frequently proven bacterial infections in pediatrics. The treatment options proposed in this guide are based on recommendations published by the Groupe de Pathologie Infectieuse de Pédiatrique (GPIP-SFP). Except in rare situations (newborns, neutropenia, sepsis), a positive urine dipstick for leukocytes and/or nitrites should precede a urine culture examination and any antibiotic therapy. After rising steadily between 2000 and 2012, the proportion of Escherichia coli strains resistant to extended-spectrum ß-lactamases (E-ESBL) has remained stable over the last ten years (between 7% and 10% in pediatrics). However, in many cases no oral antibiotic is active on E-ESBL leading either to prolonged parenteral treatment, or to use of a non-orthodox combination such as cefixime + clavulanate. With the aim of avoiding penem antibiotics and encouraging outpatient management, this guide favors initial treatment of febrile urinary tract infections (suspected or actual E-ESBL infection), with amikacin. Amikacin remains active against the majority of E-ESBL strains. It could be prescribed as monotherapy for patients in pediatric emergency departments or otherwise hospitalized patients.

Antibiotic therapy for osteoarticular infections in 2023: Proposals from the Pediatric Infectious Pathology Group (GPIP).

Most osteoarticular infections (OAI) occur via the hematogenous route, affect children under 5 years of age old, and include osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, osteoarthritis and spondylodiscitis. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are needed to avoid complications. Children with suspected OAI should be hospitalized at the start of therapy. Surgical drainage is indicated in patients with septic arthritis or periosteal abscess. Staphylococcus aureus is implicated in OAI in children at all ages; Kingella kingae is a very common causative pathogen in children from 6 months to 4 years old. The French Pediatric Infectious Disease Group recommends empirical antibiotic therapy with appropriate coverage against methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) with high doses (150 mg/kg/d) of intravenous cefazolin. In most children presenting uncomplicated OAI with favorable outcome (disappearance of fever and pain), short intravenous antibiotic therapy during 3 days can be followed by oral therapy. In the absence of bacteriological identification, oral relay is carried out with the amoxicillin/clavulanate combination (80 mg/kg/d of amoxicillin) or cefalexin (150 mg/kg/d). If the bacterial species is identified, antibiotic therapy will be adapted to antibiotic susceptibility. The minimum total duration of antibiotic therapy should be 14 days for septic arthritis, 3 weeks for osteomyelitis and 4-6 weeks for OAI of the pelvis, spondylodiscitis and more severe OAI, and those evolving slowly under treatment or with an underlying medical condition (neonate, infant under 3 months of old, immunocompromised patients). Treatment of spondylodiscitis and severe OAI requires systematic orthopedic advice.

[New human vaccines]. / Nouveautés vaccinales en médecine humaine.

Proteinaceous meningococcal B vaccines are under development, and the most advanced, Bexsero, is currently being evaluated by the European Medicines Agency. Approval, if granted, will be based on safety, immunogenicity, and theoretical strain coverage established in vitro. Clinical effectiveness will only be determined after market release. New, more effective influenza vaccines are also being developed. A trivalent attenuated nasal influenza vaccine (Fluenz) shows better efficacy in children than the classic trivalent seasonal inactivated vaccine, but its use is restricted to children over 2 years of age because of safety and efficacy considerations. The more potent trivalent (MF59) adjuvated inactivated influenza vaccine (Fluad), licensed for adults over 65 years of age, is being evaluated through a pediatric investigation plan. This vaccine could be useful for infants in whom unadjuvated inactivated vaccines are poorly protective, but its safety must first be fully established.

Procalcitonin at 12-36 hours of fever for prediction of invasive bacterial infections in hospitalized febrile neonates.

Aim: We aimed to investigate the performance of procalcitonin (PCT) assay between 12 and 36 h after onset of fever (PCT H12-H36) to predict invasive bacterial infection (IBI) (ie, meningitis and/or bacteremia) in febrile neonates. Methods: We retrospectively included all febrile neonates hospitalized in the general pediatric department in a teaching hospital from January 2013 to December 2019. PCT assay ≤ 0.6 ng/ml was defined as negative. The primary outcome was to study the performance of PCT H12-H36 to predict IBI. Results: Out of 385 included neonates, IBI was ascertainable for 357 neonates (92.7%). We found 16 IBI: 3 meningitis and 13 bacteremia. Sensitivity and specificity of PCT H12-H36 in the identification of IBI were, respectively, 100% [95% CI 82.9-100%] and 71.8% [95% CI 66.8-76.6%], with positive and negative predictive values of 14.3% [95% CI 8.4-22.2%] and 100% [95% CI 98.8-100%] respectively. Of the 259 neonates who had a PCT assay within the first 12 h of fever (< H12) and a PCT assay after H12-H36, 8 had IBI. Two of these 8 neonates had a negative < H12 PCT but a positive H12-H36 PCT. Conclusions: PCT H12-H36 did not miss any IBI whereas < H12 PCT could missed IBI diagnoses. PCT H12-H36 might be included in clinical decision rule to help physicians to stop early antibiotics in febrile neonates.

Inverse correlation between varicella severity and level of anti-Varicella Zoster Virus maternal antibodies in infants below one year of age.

Varicella, a widespread disease of childhood, is usually benign but may in some instances lead to complications and eventually death. The aim of this study was to assess whether varicella severity in infants below one year of age was associated with the level of anti-varicella zoster virus (VZV) maternal antibodies. Two different data sets were used. Data on varicella-associated complications were collected through a national surveillance network involving 175 hospital-based pediatric wards. Data on levels of maternal acquired antibodies according to infants' age were extracted from a cohort of 345 full term infants enrolled in a prospective multicenter study in seven pediatric wards and/or pediatric emergency units. Among infants hospitalized for varicella complications, the overall prevalence of complications increased regularly from 10.4% in infants below 1 month of age to over 72.4% at 5 months of age. Conversely, the mean antibody titre decreased from 536 mIU/mL in the [0-1 [month group to below the 150 mIU/mL threshold at 3-4 months [Pearson coefficient = -0.956 (p < 0.001)]. Based on large numbers of infants, our results show for the first time, a strong inverse correlation between the levels of circulating anti-VZV maternal antibodies in full term infants and occurrence of varicella complications below one year of age. Infant protection could be optimized by increasing herd immunity, reducing the susceptibility of women in childbearing age and lowering the age of routine vaccination to 9 months. Additional vaccination for unprotected persons in close contact with infants below 12 months of age could be promoted.

[Follow-up vaccination of children from 3 to 12 years]. / Suivi vaccinal de l'enfant de 3 à 12 ans.

From the age of 3 to the age of 12, each consultation should be viewed as an opportunity to review the child's immunization schedule and update his vaccination, if necessary, so that each child receives: two doses of the trivalent measles-mumps-rubella vaccine, one dose of conjugate C meningococcal vaccine, a full immunization against the hepatitis B, on a three-dose schedule until the age of 11, and a two-dose schedule between 11 and 15 years. At-risk populations should be identified so that they can receive additional vaccines (influenza and hepatitis A at any age, pneumococcal invasive infections until the age of 5).