Musical Expertise Influences the Processing of Short and Long Auditory Time Intervals: An Electroencephalography Study.

Musical expertise has been proven to be beneficial for time perception abilities, with musicians outperforming nonmusicians in several explicit timing tasks. However, it is unclear how musical expertise impacts implicit time perception. Twenty nonmusicians and 15 expert musicians participated in an EEG recording during a passive auditory oddball paradigm with 0.8- and 1.6-sec standard time intervals and deviant intervals that were either played earlier or delayed relative to the standard interval. We first confirmed that, as was the case for nonmusicians, musicians use different neurofunctional processes to support the perception of short (below 1.2 sec) and long (above 1.2 sec) time intervals: Whereas deviance detection for long intervals elicited a N1 component, P2 was associated with deviance detection for short time intervals. Interestingly, musicians did not elicit a contingent negative variation (CNV) for longer intervals but show additional components of deviance detection such as (i) an attention-related N1 component, even for deviants occurring during short intervals; (ii) a N2 component for above and below 1.2-sec deviance detection, and (iii) a P2 component for above 1.2-sec deviance detection. We propose that the N2 component is a marker of explicit deviance detection and acts as an inhibitory/conflict monitoring of the deviance. This hypothesis was supported by a positive correlation between CNV and N2 amplitudes: The CNV reflects the temporal accumulator and can predict explicit detection of the deviance. In expert musicians, a N2 component is observable without CNV, suggesting that deviance detection is optimized and does not require the temporal accumulator. Overall, this study suggests that musical expertise is associated with optimized implicit time perception.

The Processing of Short Time Intervals: Some Critical Issues.

Humans have the capability to make judgments about the relative duration of time intervals with accuracy (correct perceived duration) and precision (low variability). However, this capability has limitations, some of which are discussed in the present chapter. These limitations, either in terms of accuracy or precision, are obvious when there are changes in the physical characteristics of the stimuli used to mark the intervals to be judged. The characteristics are the structure (filled vs. empty) of the intervals and the sensory origin of the stimuli used to mark them. The variability of time estimates also depends on the use of single intervals by opposition to the use of sequences of intervals, and on the duration range under investigation. In addition to the effect caused by the physical characteristics of the stimuli, the perceived duration also relies on the way of presenting successive stimuli and on whether the intervals are marked by a single source or by different sources with distance (spatial effect) between them.

The timing database: An open-access, live repository for interval timing studies.

Interval timing refers to the ability to perceive and remember intervals in the seconds to minutes range. Our contemporary understanding of interval timing is derived from relatively small-scale, isolated studies that investigate a limited range of intervals with a small sample size, usually based on a single task. Consequently, the conclusions drawn from individual studies are not readily generalizable to other tasks, conditions, and task parameters. The current paper presents a live database that presents raw data from interval timing studies (currently composed of 68 datasets from eight different tasks incorporating various interval and temporal order judgments) with an online graphical user interface to easily select, compile, and download the data organized in a standard format. The Timing Database aims to promote and cultivate key and novel analyses of our timing ability by making published and future datasets accessible as open-source resources for the entire research community. In the current paper, we showcase the use of the database by testing various core ideas based on data compiled across studies (i.e., temporal accuracy, scalar property, location of the point of subjective equality, malleability of timing precision). The Timing Database will serve as the repository for interval timing studies through the submission of new datasets.

Psychophysiological stress influences temporal accuracy.

Distortions of duration perception are often observed in response to highly arousing stimuli, but the exact mechanisms that evoke these variations are still under debate. Here, we investigate the effect of induced physiological arousal on time perception. Thirty-eight university students (22.89 ± 2.5; 28 females) were tested with spontaneous finger-tapping tasks and a time bisection task (with stimuli between 300 and 900 ms). Before the time bisection task, half of the participants (STRESS group) performed a stress-inducing task, i.e., the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT), whereas the other participants (CONTROL group) performed a control task, the Paced Auditory Number Reading Task (PANRAT). The PASAT induced a greater heart rate, but not electrodermal, increase, as well as a more unpleasant and arousing state compared to the PANRAT. Moreover, although the two groups presented a similar performance at the finger-tapping tasks, participants in the STRESS group showed better temporal performance at the time bisection task (i.e., lower constant error) than the controls. These results indicate that psychophysiological stress may alter the subsequent perception of time.

Identification of "sleeping" talent using psychological characteristics in junior elite ice-hockey players.

Scouts search for "sleepers" who may be initially overlooked but ultimately exceed expectations. The psychological characteristics of those players are often neglected because they are difficult to observe, but hold promise to identify sleepers given for example the self-regulation and perceptual-cognitive skills that those developing players might need to flourish. The aim of this study was to examine whether sleepers could be retrospectively identified using psychological characteristics. Ninety-five junior elite ice-hockey players (aged 15-16) were assessed on self-regulation and perceptual-cognitive skills before the yearly draft. Seventy players were drafted after the second round (37th or later). Three years later, professional scouts identified 15/70 sleepers they would now pick if given the chance. Those identified by the scouts showed higher self-regulation planning, and had distinguishable gaze behaviour (fewer fixations on more AOIs) when performing a video-based decision-making task than other late-drafted players (84.3% correct classification; R2 = .40). In addition, two latent profiles differentiated by self-regulation were found, with the profile with higher scores including 14/15 players selected by the scouts. Psychological characteristics were successful in retrospectively predicting sleepers, and may in future help scouts to make better selections of talent.

Do I dislike what you dislike? Investigating the effect of disgust on time processing.

Time perception can be distorted by emotional stimuli. The present study aims to investigate the effect of disgust on time perception in young adults. Here, we report two experiments in which a time bisection task was used with intervals lasting 400 ms (short standard) to 1600 ms (long standard). In Experiment 1, temporal intervals were marked by neutral images or images from food (rotten, joyful), and facial (disgust, happy) categories. In Experiment 2, disgust-eliciting and neutral stimuli belonging to seven different domains were used: faces, food, animals, body products, injury/infections, death and hygiene. Results showed temporal overestimations when, compared to neutral conditions, disgusted faces (Experiments 1 and 2) and disgusting death and hygiene stimuli (Experiment 2) were used, and a temporal underestimation when images of rotten food (Experiment 1) were used. Results are discussed in terms of arousal-based and attention-based processes and showed that the degree of the emotional component influences time perception.

The role of time-monitoring behaviour in time-based prospective memory performance in younger and older adults.

Time-based prospective memory (TB-PM) is the ability to remember to perform an action at a specific moment in the future. Accurate TB-PM performance requires several cognitive processes that are known to decline in normal ageing. This study aimed to examine associations between TB-PM performance and executive functions and time perception in younger and older adults. TB-PM was assessed with the Virtual Week paradigm. Using a within-subjects experimental manipulation, participants performed TB-PM tasks both when a clock was in constant view and when it was hidden behind a button. Results showed that younger adults performed significantly better than older adults on all TB-PM task types, and checked the clock more often, and more strategically. Clock availability improved TB-PM performance in all participants. Correlational analyses showed that TB-PM accuracy was positively related to clock-checking frequency but unrelated to time perception. Relationships between executive functions and TB-PM differed across age groups as well as TB-PM task types. The findings suggest that different cognitive processes are required for different types of TB-PM tasks and in different ages. These results highlight the importance of considering TB-PM task parameters when investigating the role of cognitive processes in PM performance and their contribution to age-related PM decline.

Counting fast or slow, aloud or silently? A comparison of adult stutterers and non-stutterers.

This study assesses factors influencing the capacity to maintain a steady rhythm during explicit counting activities. There are three counting paces (count every 800, 1200, or 1600 ms) and three experimental conditions (count silently, aloud and aloud in the presence of someone). The study also assesses the effect of a speech disorder, namely stuttering, on this counting ability by comparing the performance of a group of adult stutterers (n = 21) to that of a group of adult non-stutterers (n = 24). For temporal variability, in addition to replicating the fact that counting more slowly leads to lower performance, the results show that there are benefits to expect when participants count aloud instead of silently. There is no main effect of group, but the interaction between the experimental condition, the counting pace, and the group is significant. Adult non-stutterers are better than adult stutterers in the silent and long time-interval conditions (1600 ms). The significantly higher variability at 1600 ms indicates a loss of efficiency in the capacity to keep time constant when counting is slow, and it is in this condition that stutterers will gain the most benefits from counting aloud instead of silently.

Effects of Emotional Facial Expression on Time Perception in Patients with Parkinson's Disease.

Previous studies have demonstrated that emotional facial expressions alter temporal judgments. Moreover, while some studies conducted with Parkinson's disease (PD) patients suggest dysfunction in the recognition of emotional facial expression, others have shown a dysfunction in time perception. In the present study, we investigate the magnitude of temporal distortions caused by the presentation of emotional facial expressions (anger, shame, and neutral) in PD patients and controls. Twenty-five older adults with PD and 17 healthy older adults took part in the present study. PD patients were divided into two sub-groups, with and without mild cognitive impairment (MCI), based on their neuropsychological performance. Participants were tested with a time bisection task with standard intervals lasting 400 ms and 1600 ms. The effect of facial emotional stimuli on time perception was evident in all participants, yet the effect was greater for PD-MCI patients. Furthermore, PD-MCI patients were more likely to underestimate long and overestimate short temporal intervals than PD-non-MCI patients and controls. Temporal impairment in PD-MCI patients seem to be mainly caused by a memory dysfunction. (JINS, 2016, 22, 890-899).

The delayed reproduction of long time intervals defined by innocuous thermal sensation.

The presence of discrete events during an interval to be estimated generally causes a dilation of perceived duration (event-filling effect). Here, we investigated this phenomenon in the thermal modality using multi-seconds (19 s) innocuous cool stimuli that were either constant (continuous interval) or fluctuating to create three discrete sensory events (segmented interval). Moreover, we introduced a delay following stimulus offset, before the reproduction phase, to allow for a direct comparison with our recent study showing an underestimation of duration in a delayed reproduction task of heat pain sensations (Khoshnejad et al. in Pain 155:581-590, 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2013.12.015 ). The event-filling effect was tested by comparing the delayed reproduction of the segmented and the continuous stimuli in experimental conditions asking participants to (1) reproduce the dynamics of the sensation (i.e., changes in sensory intensity over time) or (2) reproduce only the interval duration (i.e., sensation onset-to-offset). A perceptual (control) condition required participants to report changes in sensation concurrently with the stimulus. Results of the dynamic task confirmed the underestimation of duration in the delayed reproduction task, but this effect was only found with the continuous and not with the segmented stimulus. This implies that the dilation of duration produced by segmentation might compensate for the underestimation of duration in this delayed reproduction task. However, this temporal dilation effect was only observed when participants were required to attend and reproduce the dynamics of sensation. These results suggest that the event-filling effect can be observed in the thermal sensory modality and that attention directed toward changes in sensory intensity might contribute to this effect.

Heart rate variability helps tracking time more accurately.

Adequate temporal abilities are crucial for adaptive behavior. In time processing, variations in the rate of pulses' emission by the pacemaker are often reported to be an important cause of temporal errors. These variations are often associated with physiological changes, and recently it has also been proposed that physiological changes may not just vary the pulses' emission, but they can work as a timekeeper themselves. In the present study we further explore the relationship between temporal abilities with autonomic activity and interoceptive awareness in a group of thirty healthy young adults (mean age 24.18 years; SD=2.1). Using electrocardiogram, impedance cardiography and skin conductance measures, we assessed the relationship between the autonomic profile at rest and temporal abilities in two temporal tasks (time bisection and finger tapping tasks). Results showed that heart rate variability affects time perception. We observed that increased heart rate variability (HRV) was associated with higher temporal accuracy. More specifically, we found that higher vagal control was associated with lower error in producing 1-s tempo, whereas higher overall HRV was related with lower error (measured by the constant error) in the time bisection task. Our results support the idea that bodily signals may shape our perception of time.

About the (non)scalar property for time perception.

Approaching sensation scientifically is relatively straightforward. There are physical attributes for stimulating the central nervous system, and there are specific receptors for each sense for translating the physical signals into codes that brain will recognize. When studying time though, it is far from obvious that there are any specific receptors or specific stimuli. Consequently, it becomes important to determine whether internal time obeys some laws or principles usually reported when other senses are studied. In addition to reviewing some classical methods for studying time perception, the present chapter focusses on one of these laws, Weber law, also referred to as the scalar property in the field of time perception. Therefore, the question addressed here is the following: does variability increase linearly as a function of the magnitude of the duration under investigation? The main empirical facts relative to this question are reviewed, along with a report of the theoretical impact of these facts on the hypotheses about the nature of the internal mechanisms responsible for estimating time.

Is life going too fast? Exploring the unique and joint contributions of mindfulness, temperament, task load, and metacognitions about time.

BACKGROUND: Previous research has shown that mindfulness is associated with slower passage of time in everyday life, and with lower self-reported time pressure. This study investigates some of the potential mechanisms behind these relationships. METHODS: 318 participants submitted their responses to an online survey which collected data regarding passage of time judgments, time pressure, trait mindfulness, temperament, task load, and metacognitions about time. Using commonality and dominance analyses, we explored how these variables contributed, either alone or jointly, to predicting how fast (or slow) time seems to pass for participants, or how pressed for time they felt. RESULTS: Mindfulness and temperament had some overlaps in their ability to predict passage of time judgments and time pressure for durations at the month and 2-month scales. The temperamental trait of extraversion/surgency, as well as the Non-judging and Non-reacting facets of mindfulness were among the best predictors of passage of time judgments and time pressure. Attention-related variables were mainly related to time perception via their involvement in joint effects with other variables. Results also suggested that metacognitions about time interacted with other variables in predicting passage of time judgments, but only at the month scale. Finally, among all the variables included in this study, task load had the highest degree of involvement in predictions of self-reported time pressure at the week and month scales, but it contributed relatively little to predicting passage of time judgments. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that mindfulness relates to passage of time through its involvement in inferential processes. The data also shows how different factors are related to PoTJ at different time scales. Finally, results suggest the existence of both similarities and differences in how passage of time and time pressure relate to the other included variables.

Mindfulness and time perception: A systematic integrative review.

Several recent studies have explored the relationships between mindfulness and time perception, an area of research that has become increasingly popular in the last 10-15 years. In this article, we present a systematic integrative review of the evidence on this subject. We also integrate the field's findings into a conceptual framework which considers the multifaceted nature of both mindfulness, and time perception research. To identify the relevant literature, we searched the following databases using relevant keywords: PsycINFO; Medline; EBSCO Host Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection; and Web of Science. These searches were last performed on the 4th of May 2022, and additional hand searches were also conducted. To be included, articles had to be in English and contain original data about the potential relationship(s) between mindfulness and time perception. Articles which did not present usable data about the relationship(s) between the variables of interest were excluded. In total, 47 research articles were included in the review (combined sample size of ∼5800 participants). Risks of bias in the selected studies were evaluated using two separate assessment tools designed for this purpose. Through an integrative narrative synthesis, this article reviews how mindfulness may relate to time perception for various reference frames, and for various time perception measures and methods. It also provides new insights by exploring how a wide range of findings can be integrated into a coherent whole, in light of some relevant time perception models and mindfulness theories. Altogether, the reviewed data suggest the existence of complex and multifaceted relationships between mindfulness and time perception, highlighting the importance of considering many factors when planning research or interpreting data in this field. Limitations of the current review include the scarceness of data for certain categories of findings, and the relatively low prevalence of studies with a randomized controlled design in the source literature. This research was partly funded by a grant from the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

Analyses of the impact of laterality on performances in the National Hockey League based on players' position and origin.

This study addresses the question of the lateral preference of the National Hockey League players. The shooting preference, left or right, was analysed as a function of the origin of four groups of players that are from the USA, Canada, Europe, or Russia. The analysis reveals that the players from the USA are more likely to shoot right than players from other countries. Also, compared to defense players from other groups, defense players from the USA have a higher number of shots per game and a higher goal-to-assist ratio. The study also shows that for wingers shooting left, those playing on the right wing have more goals or points per game than those playing on the left wing; and that European forward players have a better differential (+/-) than American and Canadian forward players. The study reveals the influence of the players' origin on the preference in a bimanual asymmetric task and the impact of this preference on ice hockey performances.

Linking the preference in a bilateral asymmetric task with handedness, footedness, and eyedness: The case of ice-hockey.

Most people know whether they are left-handed or right-handed, and usually base this assessment on preferences during one-handed tasks. There are several manual tasks that require the contribution of both hands, in which, in most cases, each hand plays a different role. In this specific case, holding an ice-hockey stick is particularly interesting because the hand placement may have an incidence on the playing style. In this study (n = 854), the main objective was to determine to what extent the way of holding an ice-hockey stick is associated with other lateralized preferences. Amongst the 131 participants reporting a preference for the left hand in unilateral tasks, 70.2% reported a preference for shooting right (placing the right hand in the middle of the stick); and amongst the 583 participants reporting a preference for writing with the right hand, 66.2% reported a preference for shooting left. 140 (16.4%) participants were classified as ambidextrous and 61.4% of them reported a preference for shooting right. This preference on the ice-hockey stick is closely correlated (uncrossed preference) to the way one holds a rake, shovel, or broom, or a golf club, but inversely related to the way one holds an ax and a baseball bat. The link between the way of holding the ice-hockey stick and eyedness or footedness is weak. These results are contrasted with the results reported by Loffing et al. (2014) and reveal the need to clarify the exact nature and requirements of the targeted tasks when studying bilateral asymmetric preferences.

Discrimination is not impaired when more cortical space between two electro-tactile markers increases perceived duration.

The purpose of the present study was to examine how duration processing is affected by space between two electro-tactile stimuli marking inter-stimulus time intervals. The results of two experiments, where the method of constant stimuli was used, indicated that discrimination remained at the same level when delivering two markers to different fingers (of the same hand) resulted in longer perceived duration than delivering them to the same finger. Indeed, in Experiment 1, intervals were overestimated while discrimination remained at the same level when the leading and tailing markers were delivered to the index and ring fingers, respectively, compared with when both markers were delivered to the index finger. In Experiment 2, while there were individual differences in spatial effect on perceived duration when the leading and tailing markers were delivered to the middle and little fingers, respectively, discrimination remained at the same level even with participants overestimating intervals. This indicates that variability in duration processing is constant within the same cortical hemisphere when more space between two stimuli marking time results in longer perceived duration.

The effect of modality and order presentation of emotional stimuli on time perception.

Despite human accuracy in perceiving time, many factors can modulate the subjective experience of time. For example, it is widely reported that emotion can expand or shrink our perception of time and that temporal intervals are perceived as longer when marked by auditory stimuli than by visual stimuli. In the present study, we aimed at investigating whether the influence of emotion on time perception can be altered by the order in which emotional stimuli are presented and the sensory modality in which they are presented. Participants were asked to complete a time bisection task in which emotional stimuli were presented either acoustically or visually, and either before or after interval to be estimated. We observed a main effect of modality (longer perceived duration and lower variability in the auditory than in the visual modality) as well as a main effect of emotion (temporal overestimation for negative stimuli compared to neutral). Importantly, the effects of modality and emotion interacted with the order of presentation of the emotional stimuli. In the visual condition, when emotional stimuli were presented after the temporal intervals, participants overestimated time, but no differences between negative and neutral stimuli were observed when emotional stimuli were presented first. In the auditory condition, no significant effect of emotion on perceived duration was found. Results suggest that negative emotions affect our perception of durations acting at the decision-making stage rather than at the pacemaker one. No effect on time perception was observed for emotional auditory stimuli.

Distinct brain dynamics and networks for processing short and long auditory time intervals.

Psychophysical studies suggest that time intervals above and below 1.2 s are processed differently in the human brain. However, the neural underpinnings of this dissociation remain unclear. Here, we investigate whether distinct or common brain networks and dynamics support the passive perception of short (below 1.2 s) and long (above 1.2 s) empty time intervals. Twenty participants underwent an EEG recording during an auditory oddball paradigm with .8- and 1.6-s standard time intervals and deviant intervals either shorter (early) or longer (delayed) than the standard interval. We computed the auditory ERPs for each condition at the sensor and source levels. We then performed whole brain cluster-based permutation statistics for the CNV, N1 and P2, components, testing deviants against standards. A CNV was found only for above 1.2 s intervals (delayed deviants), with generators in temporo-parietal, SMA, and motor regions. Deviance detection of above 1.2 s intervals occurred during the N1 period over fronto-central sensors for delayed deviants only, with generators in parietal and motor regions. Deviance detection of below 1.2 s intervals occurred during the P2 period over fronto-central sensors for delayed deviants only, with generators in primary auditory cortex, SMA, IFG, cingulate and parietal cortex. We then identified deviance related changes in directed connectivity using bivariate Granger causality to highlight the networks dynamics associated with interval processing above and below 1.2. These results suggest that distinct brain dynamics and networks support the perception of time intervals above and below 1.2 s.

The Relative Age Effect in Ice Hockey: Analysis of Its Presence, Its Fading and of a Reversal Effect among Junior and Professional Leagues.

This study analyzes the relative age effect (RAE) among the world's best junior hockey leagues and in the NHL. Despite the prevalence of RAE in ice hockey, past research suggests its fading-reversal over time, which may occur at later stages of athletic development. The hypothesis of the RAE reversal was tested with two sources of raw data files from the 2021-2022 season: 15 of the best international junior and minor professional leagues (N = 7 399) and the NHL (N = 812). Birth quartile distributions were analyzed to verify the prevalence of RAE and quantile regression was used to test the reversal of RAE hypotheses. Advanced hockey metrics were aggregated from multiple data sources and used to compare early born with late born players using birth quartiles. Prevalence of the RAE was verified with crosstabs analyses and quantile regression was used to test the reversal effect. Results indicated that the RAE still prevailed in ice hockey, with higher magnitude in Canadian leagues. Regression analyses showed that late-born junior and minor pro players, despite getting less exposure in terms of games played, attained levels of offensive production similar to those of early born players. Late-born players able to emerge in the NHL performed similarly and sometimes displayed better performance (in some markers). Results suggest that stakeholders should find ways to pay special attention to late born players in talent identification processes and offer them opportunities to develop at the highest levels.