Seasonal dynamics response mechanism of benthic microbial community to artificial reef habitats.

Artificial reefs (ARs) have been globally deployed to enhance and restore coastal resource and ecosystems. Microorganisms play an essential role in marine ecosystems, while the knowledge regarding the impact of ARs on microecology is still limited, particularly data concerning the response of benthic microbial community to AR habitats. In this study, the seasonal dynamics of benthic microbial community in AR and adjacent non-artificial reef (NAR) areas surrounding Xiaoshi Island were investigated with high-throughput sequencing technology. The results revealed that the diversity and structure of microbial community between AR and NAR both displayed pronounced seasonal dynamics. There was a greater influence of season factors on microbial communities than that of habitat type. The microbial communities in AR and NAR habitats were characterized by a limited number of abundant taxa (ranging from 5 to 12 ASVs) with high relative abundance (8.35-25.53%) and numerous rare taxa (from 5994 to 12412 ASVs) with low relative abundance (11.91%-24.91%). Proteobacteria, Bacteroidota and Desulfobacterota were the common predominant phyla, with the relative abundances ranging from 50.94% to 76.76%. A total of 52 biomarkers were discovered, with 15, 4, 6, and 27 biomarkers identified in spring, summer, autumn and winter, respectively. Co-occurrence network analysis indicated that AR displayed a more complex interaction pattern and higher susceptibility to external disturbances. Furthermore, the neutral model and ßNTI analyses revealed that the assembly of microbial communities in both AR and NAR is significantly influenced by stochastic processes. This study could provide valuable insights into the impact of ARs construction on the benthic ecosystems and would greatly facilitate the development and implementation of the future AR projects.

External Pressure Affecting Dendrite Growth and Dissolution in Lithium Metal Batteries During Cycles.

Lithium (Li) metal has garnered significant attention as the preferred anode for high-energy lithium metal batteries. However, safety concerns arising from the growth of Li dendrites have hindered the advancement of Li metal batteries. In this study, we first elucidate the impact of external pressure and internal stress on dendrite growth and dissolution behavior of Li metal batteries during continuous charging-discharging cycles, employing a developed electrochemomechanical phase-field model. A typical parameter is defined to calculate the amount of dead Li that affects the electrochemical performance of Li metal batteries during multiple cycles. The underlying mechanisms of dendrites observed from in situ experiments are explained through the developed phase-field model. After charging/discharging, dendrites with a treelike structure yield a greater amount of dead Li compared to those with a needlelike configuration. Increasing the pressure appropriately can effectively reduce the growth points of dendrites and suppress the Li dendrite growth. Excessive pressure not only induces dendritic fractures that lead to the formation of dead Li but also undermines the battery performance. The accumulated internal stress might threaten the structural stability of the Li metal, thereby influencing the evolution of the Li dendrite morphology. A reasonable strategy is proposed to strike a balance between external pressure and the growth and dissolution of Li dendrites. These findings offer valuable insights into the judicious application of pressure to mitigate the advancement of electroplating reactions.

The effects of flow field on the succession of the microbial community on artificial reefs.

The flow field is one of the most important external conditions affecting the development of biofouling community on artificial reefs (ARs), especially the microbial community. In this article, we investigated the temporal dynamics of microbial communities between the stoss side and the lee side of ARs. The results showed that the composition and structure of microbial and macrobenthic communities between the stoss side and the lee side both presented obvious temporal variations. Microbial diversity and richness were higher on the stoss side than that on the lee side. There was a greater impact on bacterial and archaeal communities on temporal scale compared to that on micro-spatial scale, which was not suitable for the fungal community. The organism biomass, abundance and coverage of macrobenthic community on the lee side were higher than those on the stoss side, and the microbial diversity on the stoss side increased significantly with the organism coverage.

Investigation on the physical and electrochemical properties of typical Ni-based alloys used for the bipolar plates of proton exchange membrane fuel cells.

The phase, mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, hydrophobicity, and interface contact resistance of three typical Ni-based alloys (Hastelloy B, Hastelloy C-276, and Monel 400) and 304 stainless steels were experimentally studied to evaluate their service performances as bipolar plate materials of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. All four alloys exhibit single-phase face-centered cubic structure, high strength, good ductility, and high hardness. Hastelloy C-276 has the best ductility with an uniform elongation of 72.5% and highest hardness of 363.7 HV. Hastelloy B has the highest ultimate tensile strength of 913.6 MPa. The hydrophobicity of all four alloys is not good, although Monel 400 has the highest water contact angle of 84.2°. Hastelloy B, Hastelloy C-276, and 304 stainless steel exhibit unsatisfying corrosion resistance in a simulated acidic work environment of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (0.5 M H2SO4+2 ppm HF, 80 °C, H2) and high interface contact resistance. By contrast, Monel 400 demonstrates excellent corrosion resistance with a corrosion current density of 5.9 × 10-7 A cm-2 and a low interface contact resistance of 7.2 mΩ cm2 at 140 N/cm2. In terms of comprehensive performance, Monel 400 is the best uncoated material for the bipolar plates of proton exchange membrane fuel cells among typical Ni-based alloys.

Response mechanism of meiofaunal communities to multi-type of artificial reef habitats from the perspective of high-throughput sequencing technology.

Multiple types of artificial reefs have been widely deployed in the coast of northern Yellow Sea, which can enhance fishery resources, restore coastal habitats and improve the marine environment. Meiofauna plays important ecological roles in marine ecosystem, but the response mechanism of meiofaunal community to different types of artificial reef is still poorly understood. In this study, we characterized the meiofaunal communities of concrete artificial reef habitat (CAR), rocky artificial reef habitat (RAR), ship artificial reef habitat (SAR) and adjacent natural habitat (NH) using 18S rRNA gene high-throughput sequencing technology, and explored the relationship of community-environment. The results showed that the diversity and community structure of meiofauna differed significantly on both spatial and temporal scales. Spatial differences were mainly contributed to the flow field effects and biological effects generated by artificial habitats, while temporal differences were driven by temperature (T) and dissolved oxygen (DO). The dominant taxa of meiofauna included arthropods, annelids, platyhelminths and nematodes. Platyhelminths were mainly positively influenced by artificial habitats but annelids were the opposite. Co-occurrence network analysis revealed that NH was more sensitive to environmental change than artificial habitat, while the performance of CAR and SAR were more stable. These results indicated that meiofauna can respond accordingly to different types of artificial habitats, and could be superimposed over the normal seasonal effects. The current study could provide fundamental data for understanding the response mechanism of meiofaunal community to different types of artificial habitats and a reference for assessments of the impact of artificial reefs on the marine environment.

Distribution of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in seasonal low-oxygen marine ranching in northern Yellow Sea, China.

Seasonal low-oxygen in marine ranching in the northern Yellow Sea has been one of the major environmental problems in coastal waters in recent years. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are important nutrients, which are susceptible to the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO). This article studied the effects of low-oxygen on nutrients represented by N and P fractions in marine ranching in the northern Yellow Sea. The results showed that there were significant layer differences in temperature and salinity during the low-oxygen period. In the seawater, the nutrient distribution in the death disaster zone of sea cucumbers and the non-disaster zone was similar, and DO had a strong positive correlation with dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN). In the sediment, significant regional differences existed in nutrient concentration, and the concentration of total phosphorus (TP) decreased significantly with the increase in DO content. The results showed that the sources and sinks of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients were inconsistent in this zone, and migration and transformation of the existing form of nitrogen with the seasonal changes in the water environment was a main factor for N distribution. This study extended the understanding of the effects of seasonal low-oxygen on N and P.

Elucidating the Role of Rational Separator Microstructures in Guiding Dendrite Growth and Reviving Dead Li.

Li metal has attracted considerable attention as the preferred anode material for high-energy batteries. However, Li dendrites have limited the development of Li-metal batteries. Herein, the effects of tuning the porous separator microstructure (SM) for guiding Li dendrite growth and reviving dead Li are revealed using a mechano-electrochemical phase-field model. A strategy of guiding, instead of suppression, was applied to avoid disordered Li dendrite growth. By analyzing the effects of the number of layers, thickness, degree of staggered overlap in the separator, interlayer spacing, and porosity of SM on Li dendrite behavior, we discovered that applying a rationally designed SM can finely guide the Li nucleation and growth direction toward dense deposition. The revival of dead Li was also observed via an in situ experiment on Li dendrites. The reactivation of dead Li after it recontacts Li metal was verified. These findings not only provide fundamental information for the tuning of the SM but can also help better understand the dendrite growth of other alkali metal-ion batteries.

Comparison studies of epiphytic microbial communities on four macroalgae and their rocky substrates.

Macroalgae and their rocky substrates both support diverse and abundant microbiota, performing essential ecological functions in marine ecosystem. However, the differences in the epiphytic microbial communities on macroalgae and rocky substrate are still poorly understood. In this study, the epiphytic microbial communities on four macroalgae (Corallina officinalis, Rhodomela confervoides, Sargassum thunbergii, and Ulva linza) and their rocky substrates from Weihai coast zone were characterized using high-throughput sequencing technology. The results showed that the alpha diversity indices were greater in rocky substrates than that in macroalgae. The microbial similarities among macroalgae and rocky substrate groups tended to decrease from the high taxonomic ranks to lower ranks, only 22.69% of the total amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) were shared between them. The functional analysis revealed that the microbiotas were mainly involved in metabolic activities. This study would provide the theoretical foundation for macroalgal cultivation and algal reef applications.

Response mechanism of microbial community to seasonal hypoxia in marine ranching.

Seasonal hypoxia, as an increasingly recognized environmental issue, frequently occurred in marine ranching from northern Yellow Sea, China. Although microorganisms play an important ecological role in marine ecosystems, but little is known on the response mechanism of microbial community to seasonal hypoxia in marine ranching. A total of 132 seawater samples and 47 sediment samples were collected from the marine ranching, both in the death disaster zone of sea cucumbers and the non-disaster zone, and in different months. 16S rRNA gene high-throughput sequencing was used to explore the microbial community and its influencing factors. The results showed that the stratification in community composition and dissolved oxygen content appeared in August. The Alpha diversity in seawater was higher in summer than in winter, and significant differences in Beta diversity appeared between the death disaster zone of sea cucumbers and the non-disaster zone in sediments. In addition, environmental effects explained more of the variation in bacterial community composition in seawater as compared with spatial effects did, whereas, sedimentary bacterial communities were more closely related to spatial effects. The present results could provide fundamental data for understanding the response mechanism of the microbial community to seasonal hypoxia in marine ranching and are of great significance for the management and protection of marine ranching.

Evaluation of artificial reef habitats as reconstruction or enhancement tools of benthic fish communities in northern Yellow Sea.

Artificial reefs have been widely deployed in the northern Yellow Sea. However, the differences in the ecological benefits on different types of artificial reef habitats are still poorly understood. In this study, the temporal and spatial differences on benthic fish communities were evaluated among concrete artificial reef habitat (CAR), rocky artificial reef habitat (RAR), ship artificial reef habitat (SAR) around Xiaoshi Island in northern Yellow Sea. The results indicated that all three types of artificial reef habitats can enhance the diversity variables of benthic fish communities, and fish abundance, species richness and Shannon-Wiener index of CAR were generally better than the other two. CAR and RAR hosted similar community composition of benthic fish, and all types of habitats showed significant differences in community composition between winter-spring and summer-autumn. Environmental factors, especially water temperature, can also affect the community composition by affecting the migration of temperature-preferred species. Overall, the enhancement effects of artificial habitats on fisheries productivity varied with fish species and reef types. This study will help to understand the ecological effects of different types of artificial reefs in northern Yellow Sea, and then could give an insight for scientific construction of artificial reefs in this region.

Comparative Analysis of the Ecological Succession of Microbial Communities on Two Artificial Reef Materials.

Concrete and wood are commonly used to manufacture artificial reefs (ARs) worldwide for marine resource enhancement and habitat restoration. Although microbial biofilms play an important role in marine ecosystems, the microbial communities that colonize concrete and wooden ARs and their temporal succession have rarely been studied. In this study, the temporal succession of the microbial communities on concrete and wooden AR blocks and the driving factors were investigated. The composition of the microbial communities underwent successive shifts over time: among the six dominant phyla, the relative abundances of Proteobacteria, Cyanobacteria and Gracilibacteria significantly decreased in wood, as did that of Cyanobacteria in concrete. Operational taxonomic units (OTU) richness and Shannon index were significantly higher in concrete than in wood. Non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination placed the microbial communities in two distinct clusters corresponding to the two substrate materials. The macrobenthic compositions of concrete and wood were broadly similar and shifted over time, especially in the first five weeks. The Shannon index of the microbial communities in concrete and wood increased significantly with the organism coverage. The results provide fundamental data on microbial community succession during the initial deployment of ARs and contribute to understanding the ecological effects of ARs.

Effect of Different Influent Conditions on Biomass Production and Nutrient Removal by Aeration Microalgae Membrane Bioreactor (ICFB-MMBR) System for Mariculture Wastewater Treatment.

The nutrient removal and biomass production of the internal circulating fluidized bed microalgae membrane bioreactor (ICFB-MMBR) was studied under different cultivation modes, influent TOC, influent pH, and influent N/P. Platymonas helgolandica tsingtaoensis was used as the biological source. The growth of P. helgolandica tsingtaoensis and the removal efficiency of pollutants in the mixotrophy culture mode were improved compared with other culture modes. With the increased influent TOC, the average growth rate of P. helgolandica tsingtaoensis increased, and ammonia nitrogen and total phosphorus removal rate were improved. The P. helgolandica tsingtaoensis growth rate and nutrient removal efficiencies at the influent pH of 8 were the best among the different influent pH values. As the influent N/P ratio increased from 5 to 20, the P. helgolandica tsingtaoensis growth rate and pollutant removal rate increased gradually. When the influent N/P ratio was higher than 20, the P. helgolandica tsingtaoensis growth rate and pollutant removal rate tended to be stable and did not significantly change with the increase of influent N/P ratio. At the proper influent conditions, the high P. helgolandica tsingtaoensis biomass and nutrient removal efficiency could be obtained in the microalgae membrane bioreactor, which could provide a theoretical basis for the application of the system for wastewater treatment.

The Influence of Different Operation Conditions on the Treatment of Mariculture Wastewater by the Combined System of Anoxic Filter and Membrane Bioreactor.

The mariculture wastewater treatment performance for the combined system of anoxic filter and membrane bioreactor (AF-MBR) was investigated under different hydraulic retention times (HRTs), influent alkalinity, and influent ammonia nitrogen load. The results showed that the removal efficiencies of TOC and total nitrogen were slightly better at the HRT of 8 h than at other HRTs, and the phosphate removal efficiency decreased with the increase of HRT. With the increase of influent alkalinity, the removal of TOC and phosphate did not change significantly. With the increase of influent alkalinity from 300 mg/L to 500 mg/L, the total nitrogen removal efficiency of AF-MBR was improved, but the change of the removal efficiency was not obvious when the alkalinity increased from 500 mg/L to 600 mg/L. When the influent concentration of ammonia nitrogen varied from 20 mg/L to 50 mg/L, the removal efficiencies of TOC, phosphate, and total nitrogen by AF-MBR were stable. An interesting finding was that in all the different operation conditions examined, the treatment efficiency of AF-MBR was always better than that of the control MBR. The concentrations of NO3--N in AF-MBR were relatively low, whereas NO3--N accumulated in the control MBR. The reason was that the microorganisms attached to the carrier and remained fixed in the aerobic and anoxic spaces, so that there was a gradual enrichment of bacteria characterized by slow growth in a high-salt environment. In addition, the microorganisms could gather and grow on the carrier forming a biofilm with higher activity, a richer and more stable population, and enhanced ability to resist a load impact.

Preparation and Characterization of MWCNTs/PVDF Conductive Membrane with Cross-Linked Polymer PVA and Study on Its Anti-Fouling Performance.

Based on carboxylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs-COOH), a MWCNTs/PVDF conductive membrane was prepared by a vacuum filtration cross-linking method. The surface compositions and morphology of conductive membranes were studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and high-resolution field emission scanning electron microscopy, respectively. The effects of cross-linked polymeric polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) on the conductive membrane properties such as the porosity, pore size distribution, pure water flux, conductivity, hydrophilicity, stability and antifouling properties were investigated. Results showed that the addition of PVA to the MWCNTs/PVDF conductive membrane decreased the pure water flux, porosity and the conductivity. However, the hydrophilicity of the modified MWCNTs/PVDF conductive membrane was greatly improved, and the contact angle of pure water was reduced from 70.18° to 25.48° with the addition of PVA contents from 0 wt% to 0.05 wt%. Meanwhile, the conductive membranes with higher content had a relatively higher stability. It was found that the conductive functional layer of the conductive membrane had an average mass loss rate of 1.22% in the 30 min ultrasonic oscillation experiment. The tensile intensity and break elongation ratio of the conductive membrane are improved by the addition of PVA, and the durability of the conductive membrane with PVA was superior to that without PVA added. The electric assisted anti-fouling experiments of modified conductive membrane indicated that compared with the condition without electric field, the average flux attenuation of the conductive membrane was reduced by 11.2%, and the membrane flux recovery rate reached 97.05%. Moreover, the addition of PVA could accelerate the clean of the conductive membranes.

Investigation into the Novel Microalgae Membrane Bioreactor with Internal Circulating Fluidized Bed for Marine Aquaculture Wastewater Treatment.

A microalgae membrane bioreactor (MMBR) with internal circulating fluidized bed (ICFB) was constructed at room temperature to study the removal efficiency of marine aquaculture wastewater pollutants and continuously monitor the biomass of microalgae. Within 40 days of operation, the removal efficiency of NO3--N and NH4+-N in the ICFB-MMBR reached 52% and 85%, respectively, and the removal amount of total nitrogen (TN) reached 16.2 mg/(L·d). In addition, the reactor demonstrated a strong phosphorus removal capacity. The removal efficiency of PO43--P reached 80%. With the strengthening of internal circulation, the microalgae could be distributed evenly and enriched quickly. The maximum growth rate and biomass concentration reached 60 mg/(L·d) and 1.4 g/L, respectively. The harvesting of microalgae did not significantly affect the nitrogen and phosphorus removal efficiency of ICFB-MMBR. The membrane fouling of the reactor was investigated by monitoring transmembrane pressure difference (TMP). Overall, the membrane fouling cycle of ICFB-MMBR system was more than 40 days.

Long-Term Investigation into the Membrane Fouling Behavior in Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactors for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Operated at Two Different Temperatures.

In this study, the characteristics of activated sludge flocs were investigated and their effects on the evolution of membrane fouling were considered in the anaerobic membrane bioreactors (AnMBR), which were operated at 25 and 35 °C for municipal wastewater treatment. It was found that the membrane fouling rate of the AnMBR at 25 °C was more severe than that at 35 °C. The membrane fouling trends were not consistent with the change in the concentration of soluble microbial product (SMP). The larger amount of SMP in the AnMBR at 35 °C did not induce more severe membrane fouling than that in the AnMBR at 25 °C. However, the polysaccharide and protein concentration of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) was higher in the AnMBR at 25 °C in comparison with that in the AnMBR at 35 °C, and the protein/polysaccharide ratio of the EPS in the AnMBR at 25 °C was higher in contrast to that in the AnMBR at 35 °C. Meanwhile, the fouling tendencies measured for the AnMBRs could be related to the characteristics of loosely bound EPS and tightly bound EPS. The analysis of the activated sludge flocs characteristics indicated that a smaller sludge particle size and more fine flocs were observed at the AnMBR with 25 °C. Therefore, the membrane fouling potential in the AnMBR could be explained by the characteristics of activated sludge flocs.

Comparative analysis of the ribosomal DNA repeat unit (rDNA) of Perna viridis (Linnaeus, 1758) and Perna canaliculus (Gmelin, 1791).

Perna viridis and P. canaliculus are economically and ecologically important species of shellfish. In this study, the complete ribosomal DNA (rDNA) unit sequences of these species were determined for the first time. The gene order, 18S rRNA-internal transcribed spacer (ITS) 1-5.8S rRNA-ITS2-28S rRNA-intergenic spacer (IGS), was similar to that observed in other eukaryotes. The lengths of the P. viridis and P. canaliculus rDNA sequences ranged from 8,432 to 8,616 bp and from 7,597 to 7,610 bp, respectively, this variability was mainly attributable to the IGS region. The putative transcription termination site and initiation site were confirmed. Perna viridis and P. canaliculus rDNA contained two (length: 93 and 40 bp) and one (length: 131 bp) repeat motifs, respectively. Individual intra-species differences mainly involved the copy number of repeat units. In P. viridis, three cytosine-guanine (CpG) sites with sizes of 440, 1,075 and 537 bp were found to cover nearly the entire IGS sequence, whereas in P. canaliculus, two CpG islands with sizes of 361 and 484 bp were identified. The phylogenetic trees constructed with maximum likelihood and neighbour-joining methods and based on ITS sequences were identical and included three major clusters. Species of the same genus were easily clustered together.

The complete mitochondrial genome of the hybrid of Haliotis discus hannai (♀) × Haliotis Iris (♂).

In this study, the complete mitochondrial genome of the hybrid of Haliotis discus hannai (♀) × Haliotis iris (♂) was sequenced and analyzed for the first time. The mitogenome had a length of 16,719 bp and contained 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 2 rRNA genes, 22 tRNA genes, and 1 control region (CR). The sequence identity of the complete mtDNA sequences between the hybrid F1 and H. discus hannai was 99.40%, which revealed that the mitogenome of the hybrid subjected to the maternal inheritance rule. The phylogenetic analysis also presented that the hybrid F1 was relatively more close to H. discus hannai.

First-principles study on the electrical and thermal properties of the semiconducting Sc3(CN)F2 MXene.

The two-dimensional materials MXenes have recently attracted interest for their excellent performance from diverse perspectives indicated by experiments and theoretical calculations. For the application of MXenes in electronic devices, the exploration of semiconducting MXenes arouses particular interest. In this work, despite the metallic properties of Sc3C2F2 and Sc3N2F2, we find that Sc3(CN)F2 is a semiconductor with an indirect band gap of 1.18 eV, which is an expansion of the semiconducting family members of MXene. Using first-principles calculations, the electrical and thermal properties of the semiconducting Sc3(CN)F2 MXene are studied. The electron mobilities are determined to possess strong anisotropy, while the hole mobilities show isotropy, i.e. 1.348 × 103 cm2 V-1 s-1 along x, 0.319 × 103 cm2 V-1 s-1 along the y directions for electron mobilities, and 0.517 × 103 cm2 V-1 s-1 along x, 0.540 × 103 cm2 V-1 s-1 along the y directions for hole mobilities. The room-temperature thermal conductivity along the Γ â†’ M direction is determined to be 123-283 W m-1 K-1 with a flake length of 1-100 µm. Besides, Sc3(CN)F2 presents a relatively high specific heat of 547 J kg-1 K-1 and a low thermal expansion coefficient of 8.703 × 10-6 K-1. Our findings suggest that the Sc3(CN)F2 MXene might be a candidate material in the design and application of 2D nanoelectronic devices.

Chiral separation of ketoprofen on an achiral C8 column by HPLC using norvancomycin as chiral mobile phase additives.

A high-performance liquid chromatographic method for chiral separation of ketoprofen racemate was developed. (R)- and (S)-ketoprofen enantiomers were separated on a Hypersil BDS C8 column (150 mm x 4.6 mm i.d., 5 microm) at 25 degrees C, using acetonitrile-triethylamine acetate (TEAA) buffer (pH 5.2, 20 mM) (35:65, v/v) containing 2.0 mM norvancomycin as the mobile phase. Effects of norvancomycin concentration, content of acetonitrile and TEAA buffer pH on the enantioseparation were investigated. The method was validated for linearity, repeatability, limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantification (LOQ). Calibration curves (r2 = 0.999) were constructed in the range of 2.01-200.8 microg ml(-1) for (S)-ketoprofen and 2.04-152.4 microg ml(-1) for (R)-ketoprofen, respectively. Repeatability (n = 5) showed less than 2% relative standard deviation (R.S.D.). LOD and LOQ for the two enantiomers were found to be 0.20 and 0.78 ng for (S)-ketoprofen, 0.20 and 0.86 ng for (R)-ketoprofen, respectively. Norvancomycin and vancomycin as chiral mobile phase additives (CMPAs) in the chiral separation showed similar abilities of enantioseparation. However, to obtain the optimum enantioseparation, a lower concentration of norvancomycin than that of vancomycin is required.