Striving for safety, impact, and equity: A critical consideration of AJCP publications on formal youth mentoring programs.

In this virtual special issue (VSI) we curate and reflect upon 22 articles on formal youth mentoring previously published in the American Journal of Community Psychology (AJCP). First, we provide historical context and highlight AJCP's 2002 special issue on mentoring, which played an important role in establishing youth mentoring as a vibrant area of research. Next, we review and discuss findings from subsequent AJCP studies in three interrelated lines of inquiry: (1) the importance of facilitating high-quality mentoring relationships; (2) associations among youth's presenting needs, relationship quality, and outcomes; and (3) program practices leading to stronger, more impactful relationships. Throughout, we highlight and expand upon critical commentary from AJCP contributors, calling on the field to move away from paternalistic models that overly localize risk with youth and families without interrogating structural oppression. Our recommendations include: (1) centering critical consciousness, racial equity, and social justice in program curricula and mentor trainings; (2) respectfully engaging grassroots programs developed for and by communities of color that are underrepresented in research; (3) making meaningful efforts to recruit mentors from marginalized communities and removing barriers to their participation; and (4) examining youth's racial, ethnic, and other areas of identity development processes during mentoring.

Mentoring first-generation college students: Examining distinct relationship profiles based on interpersonal characteristics, support provision, and educational capital.

The goal of this study was to identify distinct profiles among first-generation college students' mentoring relationships based on interpersonal characteristics, provision of college-related support, and mentors' educational capital. First-year, first-generation undergraduates (n = 176) identified up to six mentors, rating various relationship characteristics, the types and degrees of college-related support each mentor provided, and each mentor's level of educational attainment. Ratings were used as indicators in a multilevel latent profile analysis among mentoring relationships (n = 254), accounting for clustering of multiple mentors within individual participants. A 3-profile solution best fit the data. Profiles were distinguished by closeness, frequency of contact, degree of college-related support provided, and mentors' educational attainment. Mentors with high educational attainment ("High-Capital Mentors") provided the most support for college-related issues, even with relatively infrequent contact. During their transition to higher education, first-generation college students appear to receive more active mentoring from adults with educational capital, although other adults may serve important functions not captured by the college-specific measures used in this study.

Contextual antecedents and well-being indicators associated with children's and adolescents' access to supportive nonparent adults.

The aim of this study was to examine contextual antecedents and well-being indicators associated with children's and adolescents' access to supportive nonparent adults (SNPAs). We conducted secondary data analysis of the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health, a large-scale caregiver-reported survey. We analyzed separate subsamples of children (ages 6-11, n = 12,849) and adolescents (ages 12-17, n = 17,628). For both children and adolescents, markers of social advantage (e.g., White race, nonimmigrant families, neighborhood/community capital, access to extracurriculars) increased the likelihood of having SNPAs, according to parent or caregiver reports. Familial factors (e.g., parent participation in school and extracurricular activities) were stronger predictors of SNPA presence for children. Access to SNPAs was negatively associated with social difficulties among children and adolescents and positively associated with curiosity and overall health among adolescents. In conclusion, disadvantage across multiple ecological levels impairs children's and adolescents' access to SNPAs. Having an SNPA may be associated with some aspects of youth well-being, although causality cannot be inferred in cross-sectional data.

Paraprofessional Youth Mentoring: A Framework for Integrating Youth Mentoring with Helping Institutions and Professions.

The demand for child mental health services, including those provided by psychologists, counselors, and social workers, exceeds the supply. This trend is expected to continue or worsen unless there are substantial structural changes in how mental health services are provided. We propose a framework for paraprofessional youth mentors, defined as a subgroup of professionally supervised, non-expert volunteer or paid mentors to whom aspects of professional helping tasks are delegated. Our proposal is aligned with historical and modern solutions to scaling mental health services, and this framework could simultaneously increase the number of youth receiving evidence-based mental health services and reduce the burden on existing systems of care. The framework defines three plausible tasks for paraprofessional mentors: (1) reducing barriers to mental health service, (2) increasing engagement in services, and (3) providing direct services. The safety and effectiveness of these task-shifting efforts will hinge on competency-based training and evaluation, supervision by professionals, and documentation of services rendered, all of which the field of youth mentoring currently lacks. We describe several requisite scientific, institutional, and regulatory advances that will be necessary to realize this variant of youth mentoring for a subgroup of youth who are presenting for assistance with mental health problems.

Non-Specific versus Targeted Approaches to Youth Mentoring: A Follow-up Meta-analysis.

Despite decades of increased research and funding, youth mentoring programs, overall, yield small effects on youth outcomes. As a result, there are growing calls for programs to utilize the mentoring relationship as context for intentional, targeted skills development, in which mentors employ targeted skills designed to match the presenting concerns of mentees. This targeted approach contrasts with the historically dominant, non-specific friendship model, which holds that a supportive relational bond-alone-promotes positive developmental change. The current study is a follow-up meta-analysis using a comprehensive dataset of all intergenerational, one-on-one mentoring program evaluations published between 1975 and 2018, investigating the comparative impact of targeted, skills-based versus non-specific, relational approaches to mentoring. Analyses of 48 mentoring studies of youth outcomes (average youth age of 12.25 years old) revealed the overall effect size of targeted programs to be more than double that of non-specific relational approaches, with significant moderator effects on academic, psychological, and social functioning. Findings suggest that youth mentoring programs can promote positive outcomes, particularly when mentors employ targeted approaches matched to the needs of their mentees.

Ideological profiles of US adults and their support for youth mentoring.

Little is known about the influence of political ideology and religiosity on adults' support for youth mentoring as a strategy to address social problems. This study used latent class analysis in a large, national sample of US adults to identify underlying ideological profiles associated with support for mentoring programs. Three latent classes emerged. The attitudes of two classes, Classic Conservatives and Progressives, were consistent with traditional political conservatism and liberalism; the latter endorsed higher support for the theory of mentoring and government spending on mentoring programs. Members of the third class, Religious Outsiders, were highly religious, self-identified as very conservative, and were highly supportive of the theory of mentoring and the use of government funds on mentoring programs. Ad hoc analyses revealed that Religious Outsiders were the most likely to actually participate in mentoring activities. These findings suggest that support for mentoring, while not universal, crosses traditional political lines.

"We almost had the whole block's phone number on the wall": A mixed methods investigation of informal helping in a predominantly rural sample.

Community psychologists have noted the limitations of professional models of mental health treatment, demonstrating that people are more likely to use informal familial or community support during adversity. However, relatively little is known about the forms and functions of informal help seeking and provision. Semistructured interviews (N = 170), in which a sample of predominantly rural-dwelling adolescents and adults described significant life experiences, were coded for instances of receiving help. Codes thematically categorized the type of adversity, role of the helper, and nature of the help received. Most participants (67.64%) reported the presence of at least one informal helper; only 8.82% of participants discussed receiving professional help. Chi-square analyses suggested that the nature of the help received varied by the types of helper and adversity being experienced and that different helpers were more likely to aid with particular adversities. The presence of a nonfamilial, nonprofessional helper was associated with higher posttraumatic growth, generativity, and perceived social support.

Processes of Natural Mentoring that Promote Underrepresented Students' Educational Attainment: A Theoretical Model.

Longitudinal studies suggest that naturally occurring mentoring relationships are associated with positive, long-term educational outcomes, but little is known about the mechanisms underlying these potential effects. Predominant theories and research methods portray natural mentoring as a static, one-to-one phenomenon and are removed from specific sociocultural and developmental contexts. Thus, the current paper critically reviews existing literature and proposes a dynamic, network-based process model of mentoring. Building on Rhodes' (2005, Handbook of youth mentoring, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 30) theoretical model, the proposed model integrates sociological, educational, and psychological research to examine developmental pathways through which natural mentoring relationships might promote underrepresented (e.g., low-income, ethnic/racial minorities) students' educational persistence and success. In particular, mentoring relationships might enhance students' positive help-seeking beliefs and trust in nonparent adults. These mentors may possess key cultural capital and knowledge that help underrepresented students navigate White, upper- or middle-class cultural norms. Mentors may also cultivate students' school-relevant selves and bicultural identities, facilitating integration into mainstream academia while affirming cultures of origin. Through these processes, previous mentoring experiences may promote the formation of new mentoring relationships, enabling youth to build dynamic support networks. Unfortunately, on a larger scale, advantage and disadvantage persist due to inequitable access to mentoring in educational settings.

The Long-Term Impact of Natural Mentoring Relationships: A Counterfactual Analysis.

Previous research suggests that youth's natural mentoring relationships are associated with better academic, vocational, and psychosocial functioning. However, little is known about the extent to which the impact of mentoring endures beyond adolescence and early adulthood. Furthermore, most natural mentoring research is confounded by selection bias. In this study, we examined the long-term impact of mentoring using the nationally representative, longitudinal Add Health dataset. We conducted counterfactual analysis, a more stringent test of causality than regression-based approaches. Compared to their unmentored counterparts, adults (ages 33-42) who had a natural mentor during adolescence or emerging adulthood reported higher educational attainment, more time spent volunteering, and more close friends, after controlling for a range of confounding factors. However, outcomes differed when mentors were classified as "strong ties" (e.g., grandparents, friends) or "weak ties" (e.g., teachers, coaches, employers). Having a strong-tie mentor was associated with having more close friends and a lower income. In contrast, having a weak-tie mentor was associated with higher educational attainment, higher income, and more time spent volunteering. These findings suggest that natural mentoring relationships can exert lasting influence on young people's developmental trajectories, providing strong rationale for efforts to expand their availability and scope.

How Economic Disadvantage Affects the Availability and Nature of Mentoring Relationships During the Transition to Adulthood.

Supportive nonparental adults, particularly nonfamilial adults, provide critical support during the transition to adulthood, opening doors to educational and career paths. This study examined whether economic disadvantage shapes access to these relationships. Results showed that low-income adolescents had reduced access to naturally occurring mentors, and the relationships they did form tended to be close bonds with family and friends, rather than nonfamilial adults. Their mentors were more likely to focus on practical support, and less likely to serve as role models or provide career advice. These effects of socioeconomic status on natural mentoring relationships remained evident, even when accounting for youth race/ethnicity. Findings suggest that networks of support differ depending on a youth's socioeconomic context in ways that could perpetuate social and economic inequalities.

Sampling from different populations: Sociodemographic, clinical, and functional differences between samples of first episode psychosis individuals and clinical high-risk individuals who progressed to psychosis.

Over the past two decades, research and clinical resources on clinical high risk (CHR) for psychosis have both expanded, with goals to better understanding risk and protective factors on the course of illness and inform early intervention efforts. However, some studies have highlighted potential sampling bias among CHR research studies, raising questions about generalizability of findings and inequitable access to early detection and intervention. The current study sought to explore these questions by comparing 94 participants in a CHR longitudinal monitoring study across North America (NAPLS-2) who converted to syndromal psychosis over the course of the study (CHR-CV) to 171 participants who presented for treatment at a localized first-episode psychosis service (FES) after converting. CHR-CV participants were significantly more likely to be White and have a college-educated parent, while FES participants were more likely to be Black and first- or second-generation immigrants. On average, CHR-CV participants were younger at onset of attenuated positive symptoms, had a longer period of attenuated symptoms prior to conversion, and were more likely to be treated with antipsychotics prior to conversion compared to those in FES programs. After controlling for time since conversion, CHR-CV participants had higher global functioning and were less likely to have experienced recent psychiatric hospitalization. Findings suggest that CHR research and FES clinics may be sampling from different populations, although conclusions are limited by inconsistent sampling frames and methods. Integrated early detection that targets defined geographic catchments may deliver more epidemiologically representative samples to both CHR research and FES.

Predictors of close faculty-student relationships and mentorship in higher education: findings from the Gallup-Purdue Index.

College students' supportive relationships with mentors-professors, advisors, and other caring adults to whom students turn as they develop their interests and career paths-are critical to their development and academic success. The current study sought to explore factors that promote or impede the formation of positive mentor-student relationships during college using a large, nationally representative sample of 5,684 college graduates from the Gallup-Purdue Index. Linear regression models revealed that first-generation college students, as well as students attending larger institutions, rated faculty and other college staff as less caring and supportive, and were less able to identify a supportive mentoring relationship during college. Greater engagement at college, including participation in faculty research, academic internships, long-term projects, and extracurricular clubs or activities, was associated with stronger perceptions of faculty support and mentorship while in college. Interestingly, demographic characteristics moderated the effects of some extracurricular activities on students' experiences. For example, participants with more student loans showed a stronger positive association between participation in long-term academic projects and perceptions of faculty support, relative to students with few loans. These findings have important implications for policies designed to foster sustained and meaningful faculty-student relationships for all students, including those traditionally marginalized on college campuses.

Natural mentoring relationships among survivors of caregiver childhood abuse: findings from the Add Health Study.

Social support promotes resilience to adverse childhood events, but little is known about the role of natural mentors-caring, nonparental adults-in the lives of childhood abuse survivors. The current study draws from a large, longitudinal, nationally representative sample (Add Health) to examine the prevalence and characteristics of natural mentoring relationships for adolescents with a history of caregiver childhood abuse, and the extent to which these relationships are associated with psychological and health outcomes in adulthood. Among the sample (n = 12,270), 28.82% and 4.86% reported caregiver childhood physical and sexual abuse, respectively. Youth who reported caregiver childhood physical abuse were more likely than those who did not endorse abuse to report having a natural mentor, but their mentoring relationships were characterized by lower interpersonal closeness, shorter duration, and less frequent contact. Exposure to caregiver childhood abuse was associated with adverse outcomes during adulthood, including antisocial behavior, physical health limitations, and suicidality; the presence of a natural mentor did not buffer the negative impact of trauma on adult outcomes. However, longer mentoring relationships during adolescence buffered the strength of the association between both caregiver physical and sexual abuse during childhood and suicidality during early adulthood.